UNlVEKStTY  of  tALiPORNM 
AT 
tu5  ANGELES  .  -'^ 

LIBRARY 


MANUAL 


Egyptian  Archeology 


©uibc  to  lire  Stubn  of  SVntiqnitief)  iir  (Bgupt. 

FOR  THE   USE  OF  STUDENTS  AND  TRAVELLERS. 

BY 

SIR    G.    MASPERO,    D.C.L.,    OxoN., 

lEMRER    OK   THE     INSTITUTE    OF    FRANCE  ;     PROFESSOR    AT    THE    COLLEGE     DE    FRANCE  ; 
DIRECTOR-GENERAL    OF   THE    SERVICE    OF   ANTIQUITIES    IN    EGYl'T. 


TRANSLATED  AND  ENLARGED  BY 

agnrs  s.  tohns. 


SIXTH  ENGLISH  EDITION. 

Blitf)  Cf)rfe  i^uiitirrtr  antr  ,-(Fort?)=crtDo  lUIustrationfi. 

NP:\V  YORK:    G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 
LONDON:   H.  GREVEL  AND  CO. 

1914 


]^  14  2 


:-J^P' 


PRINTED    BY 

HAZELL,    WATSON   AND    VINEY,    LD. 

LONDON    AND    A'i'LESBURY,. 

ENGLAND 


^    i]  Q  O 


Art 
Library    /W 


%^  PREFACE 

TO  THE  SIXTH  EDITION. 


TO  put  this  book  into  English,  and  thus 
to  hand  it  on  to  thousands  who  might 
not  otherwise  have  enjoyed  it,  has  been  to  me 
a  very  congenial  and  interesting  task.  It 
would  be  difficult,  I  imagine,  to  point  to  any 
work  of  its  scope  and  character  which  is  better 
calculated  to  give  lasting  delight  to  all  classes 
of  readers.  For  the  skilled  archaeologist,  its 
pages  contain  not  only  new  facts,  but  new 
views  and  new  interpretations  ;  w^hile  to  those 
who  know  little,  or  perhaps  nothing,  of  the 
subjects  under  discussion,  it  will  open  a  fresh 
and  fascinating  field  of  study.  It  is  not  enough 
to  say  that  a  handbook  of  Egyptian  Archaeology 
was  much  needed,  and  that  Professor  Maspero 
has  given  us  exactly  what  we  required.  He 
has  done  much  more  than  this.  He  has  given 
us  a  picturesque,  vivacious,  and  highly  original 
volume,  as  delightful  as  if  it  were  not  learned, 
and  as  instructive  as  if  it  were  dull. 


VI  PREFACE    TO   THE    SIXTH    EDITION. 

"As  regards  the  practical  side  of  Archaeology, 
it  ought  to  be  unnecessary  to  point  out  that 
its  usefulness  is  strictly  parallel  with  the  use- 
fulness of  public  museums.  To  collect  and 
exhibit  objects  of  ancient  art  and  industry  is 
worse  than  idle  if  we  do  not  also  endeavour  to 
disseminate  some  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
those  arts  and  industries,  and  of  the  processes 
employed  by  the  artists  and  craftsmen  of  the 
past.  Archaeology,  no  less  than  love,  '  adds  a 
precious  seeing  to  the  eye '  ;  and  without  that 
gain  of  mental  sight,  the  treasures  of  our 
public  collections  are  regarded  by  the  general 
visitor  as  mere  '  curiosities  ' — flat  and  stale  for 
the  m.ost  part,  and  wholly  unprofitable." 

Thus  wrote  Miss  Amelia  B.  Edwards  in  the 
preface  to  the  first  English  edition  of  this  book, 
published  in  1887. 

Since  then  the  book  has  passed  through 
other  editions.  Every  year,  almost  every 
month,  fresh  material  is  found  for  the  study  of 
Egyptology  and  fresh  light  is  thrown  upon  it 
by  the  progress  of  excavation,  exploration,  and 
research.  Hence  it  follows  that  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  the  standard  textbooks  require 
considerable  addition   and  modification   if  they 


PREFACE    TO    THE    SIXTH    EDITION.  Vll 

are  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  students,  who 
must  always  start  from  the  foremost  vantage 
ground.  Each  edition  in  succession  was  there- 
fore carefully  corrected  by  the  English  editor, 
Miss  Kate  Bradbury  ;  and  Sir  Gaston  Maspero 
himself  revised  the  work,  suggesting  or  sanction- 
ing any  modifications  or  changes  with  his  un- 
failing courtesy  and  care. 

Since  the  last  edition  was  issued  in  1902  new 
material  has  been  acquired  in  great  abundance. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  earliest  developments  of 
Egyptian    archaeology    has    been     consolidated 
and  extended  by  further  careful  and  prolonged 
study  of  the  primitive  remains  that  have  come 
down  to  us,  with  results  that  have  widened  our 
perspective    and     extended    our    knowledge    of 
Egyptian     history.       The    discovery    of   valley 
temples   has   necessitated  some  changes  in  the 
chapters  on  tombs  and  temples.      It  has  there- 
fore been  decided  to  retranslate  the  book,  re- 
modelling   it  where  absolutely    necessary,    and 
introducing    new     material,    but    preserving  its 
main  characteristics  untouched. 

The  claims  on  Sir  Gaston  Maspero  as  Direc- 
tor-General of  the  Service  of  Antiquities  in 
Egypt    forbade    any    idea    of   asking    him     to 


viii  PREFACE   TO    THE    SIXTH    EDITION. 

supply  the  additional  matter,  although  he  has 
most  kindly  assented  to  the  production  of  the 
new  English  edition. 

Where  any  serious  additions  have  been 
made,  the  sources  of  information  have  been 
indicated  as  far  as  possible  in  a  footnote,  and 
for  references  to  the  predynastic  and  Thinite 
periods  the  English  editor  is  alone  responsible. 
A  short  table  of  the  principal  epochs  of 
Egyptian  history  has  been  added. 

Many  aspects  of  Egyptian  archaeology  have 
necessarily  been  passed  over.  In  a  book  of 
this  size  it  is  impossible  to  deal  adequately 
with  the  palaeography,  the  early  relations  with 
Nubia,  and  the  Mediterranean  peoples,  nor  yet 
with  the  difficult  problems  of  the  origin  of  the 
Egyptians.  This  work  of  Sir  Gaston  Maspero 
still  remains  the  handbook  of  Egyptian 
archaeology,  and  to  render  it  too  bulky  would 
be  to  deprive  it  of  much  of  its  usefulness 
and  charm. 

For  the  new  illustrations  I  have  to  thank 
Dr.  HoQ^arth  and  Mr.  Leeds  for  their  kind 
assistance  in  procuring  photographs  of  objects 
in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  ;  Dr.  Giiterbock 
for  an  excellent  photograph  of  the  Akhenaten 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SIXTH    EDITION.  IX 

Statue  ;  and  Dr.  Flinders  Petrie,  the  Deutsche 
Orient  Gesellschaft,  and  the  Egypt  Exploration 
Fund  for  their  courtesy  in  allowing  me  to 
rei3roduce  illustrations  published  by  them. 

A.  S.  Johns. 
Cambridge,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface      v 

List  of  Illustrations xiii 

The  Principal  Epochs  of  Ancient  Egyptian  History     .  xxiv 


CHAPTER   I. 
ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL    AND    MILITARY. 

1.  Private  Dwellings 2 

2.  Fortresses .28 

3.  Public  Works .        ■      A^ 

CHAPTER   II. 
RELIGIOUS    ARCHITECTURE. 

1.  Maierials  and  Principles  of  Construction        .        .       S^ 

2.  Templp:s 7- 

3.  Decoration io7 

CHAPTER    III. 

TOMBS. 

I.    Mastakas 130 


Royal  Tombs  and  Pyramids 148 

Tombs  of  the  Theban  Empire  :  the  Rock-cut  Tombs     169 
xi 


XI 1  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   IV. 
PAINTING    AND    SCULPTURE. 

I'AGE 

1.  Drawing  and  Composition 194 

2.  Technical  Processes 218 

3.  Sculpture 231 

CHAPTER  V. 
INDUSTRIAL    ARTS. 

1.  Stone,  Pottery,  and  Glass 277 

2.  Ivory,  Wood,  Leather,  and  Textiles    ....     306 
3-   Metai 33S 

Index 371 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  T'AGE 

1.  Brickmaking,  from  Eighteenth  Dynasty  tomb-painting, 

tomb  of  Rekhmara  ......        4 

2.  House  with  vaulted  floors,  against  the  northern  wall  of 

the  great  temple  of  Medinet  Habu    ....        7 

3.  Plan    of    three-quarters    of    the   town   of    Hat-Hotep- 

Senusert  (Kahun),  built  for  the  ofhcials  and  workmen 
employed  in  connection  with  the  pyramid  of  Senusert 
II.  at  Illahun.     W.  M.  F.  Petrie       ....        8 

4.  Plan  of  house,  Medinet  Habu        .....        9 

5.  Plan  of  house,  Medinet  Habu        .....        9 

6.  Fa9ade  of  a  house  toward  the  street.  New  Kingdom     .      10 

7.  Plan  of  central  court  of  house,  second  Theban  period  .      10 

8.  Restoration  0/  the  hall   in  a  Twelfth   Dynasty  house. 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie      .  .  .  .       \  .  .      n 

9.  Wall-painting  in   a   Twelfth   Dynasty    house,    Kahun. 

Below  is  a  view  of  the  outside,  above  is  a  view  of  the 
inside  of  the  dwelling.     W.  M.  F.  Petrie  .  .  .12 

10.  Box  representing  a  house.      British  Museum  .  -13 

11.  View  of  mansion,  with  two  granaries,  from  the  tomb  of 

Anna,  Eighteenth  Dynasty      .  .         ..  .  -13 

12-13.  Portico    of    mansion,    from    wall-paintings.    Tell   el 

Amarna,  Eighteenth  Dynasty  .  .  .  .14 

14.  Plan  of  a  Theban  house  with  garden,  from  Eighteenth 

Dynasty  tomb-painting   .  .  .  .  .  .15 

15.  Perspective  view  of  the  Theban  house,  from  Eighteenth 

Dynasty  tomb-painting  .  .  .  .  .  .16 

16.  Part  of  the  palace  of  Ai,  from  tomb-painting.  Eighteenth 

Dynasty,  Tell  el  Amarna  .  .  .  .  .17 

1 7.  Perspective  view  of  the  palace  of  Ai,  Eighteenth  Dynasty, 

Tell  el  Amarna       .  .  .  .  .  .  .18 

18.  Frontage  of  house,  second  Theban  period     .  .  .19 

19.  Frontage  of  house,  second  Theban  period    .  .  .19 


XIV  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

r  Id.  PAGE 

20.  Central    pavilion   of   house,    in  form    of   tower,   second 

Thcban  period         ...... 

21.  Ceiling  pattern  from  behind  Medinet  Habii,  Twentieth 

Dynasty  .  .  .  . 

22.  Ceiling    pattern  similar  to  one  at  El  Bersheh,  Twelfth 

Dynasty  ....... 

23.  Ceiling    pattern     from    tomb    of    Aimadua,    Twentieth 

Dynasty  ....... 

24.  Wall-painting,   palace    of    Tell    el    Amarna.    W.    M.    F 

Petrie 

25.  Part  of  painted  pavement,  palace  of    Tell  el  Amarna 

W.  M.  F.  Petrie 

26.  Plan    of    private    house,    Tell    el    Amarna.    W.    M.    F 

Petrie 

27.  Door  of  a  house  of  the  Old  Kingdom,  from  the  wall  of 

tomb  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty       . 

28.  Fa9ade  of  a  Fourth  Dynasty  house,  from  the  sarcophagus 

of  Khufii  Poskhu    ...... 

29.  Plan  of  second  fortress  of  Abydos,  Eleventh  or  Twelfth 

Dynasty  ....... 

30.  Walls  of  second  fort  at  Abydos,  restored     . 

31.  Facade  of  fort,  from  wall-scene,   Beni  Hasan,  Twelfth 

D3masty  ....... 

32.  Plan  of  main  gate,  second  fortress  of  Abydos 

33.  Plan  of  south-east  gate,  second  fortress  of  Abydos 

34.  Plan  of  gate,  fortress  of  Kom  el  Ahmar 

35.  Plan  of  the  walled  city  at  El  Kab 

36.  Plan  of  walled  city  of  Kom  Ombo 

37.  Plan  of  fortress  of  Kummeh        .... 

38.  Plan  of  fortress  of  Semneh  .... 

39.  Section  of  the  platform  at  A,  B,  of  preceding  plan  , 

40.  Syrian  fort         ....... 

41.  The  town  walls  of  Dapur    ..... 

42.  City  of  Kadesh,  from  bas-relief,  Ramesseum 

43.  Plan  of  the  pavilion  of  Medinet  Habu    . 

44.  Elevation  of  pavilion,  Medinet  Habii    . 

45.  Canal  and  bridge  of  Zaru,  from  bas-relief,  Karnak  . 

46.  Cellar,  with  amphora;  ..... 

47.  Granary    ........ 

48.  Plan  of  Pithom 

49.  Store-chambers  of  the  Ramesseum 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XV 


FIG.  I'AGE 

50.  King   inaugurating   public  work.      Carved  mace    head, 

Oxford  ........      44 

31.  Dyke  at  Wady  Gerraweh     .  .  .  .  .  -47 

52.  Section  of  dyke  at  Wady  Gerraweh      .  .  .  -47 

53.  Quarries   of    Silsilis     .......      49 

54.  Draught  of  Hathor  capital  in  cpiarry  of  Gebel  Abu  Fedah     50 

55.  Bas-relief  from  one  of  the  stelae  of  Aahmes,  at  Turah, 

Eighteenth  Dynasty  .  .  .  .  .  .51 

56.  Masonry  in  temple  of  Seti  I.  at  Abydos  .  .  -57 

57.  Temple  wall  with  cornice    .  .  .  .  .  .58 

58.  Niche  and  doorway  in  temple  of  Seti  I,  at  Abydos   .  .      58 

59.  Pavement   of  the  portico  of  Osiris  in  temple  of  Seti  L, 

Abydos  ........      59 

60.  Corbelled  arch,  temple  of  Seti  I.,  Abydos  .  .  •      59 

61.  Hathor  pillar,  Abu  Simbel             .           .  .  .  .60 

62.  Pillar  of  Amenhotep  III.,  Karnak          .  .  .  .61 

63.  Sixteen-sided  pillars,  Karnak       .           .  .  .  .62 

64.  Fluted  pillar,  Kalabsheh     .           .           .  .  .  .63 

63.  Polygonal  Hathor-head  pillar.  El  Kab  .  .  .63 

66.  Column  with  square  die      .           .           .           .           .  .64 

67.  Column  with  campaniform  capital,  Ramesseum      .  .      64 

68.  Inverted  campaniform  capital,  Karnak          .           .  -65 

69.  Compound    capital      .......      66 

70.  Ornate  capitals,  Ptolemaic            .           .           .           .  .66 

71.  Lotus-bud  column,  Beni  Hasan     .           .           .           .  .66 

72.  Lotus-bud     column,      processional      hall,      Karnak, 

Thothmes    III.         .......      67 

73.  Column  in  aisles  of  hypostyle  hall,  Karnak  .  .  .68 

74.  Palm-leaf  capital         .......      69 

75.  Hathor-head  capital,  Ptolemaic  .  .  .  .69 

76.  Campaniform  and  Hathor-headed  capital,  Phite      .  .      70 

77.  Section   of   hypostyle   hall  at  Karnak,  showing  the  ar- 

rangements    of     the     campaniform     and     lotus-bud 
columns  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -71 

78.  Plan  of  temple  and  valley  temple  of  Pyramid  of  Khafra, 

Gizeh     .  ........      75 

79.  The  temple  of  the  Sun  at  Abu  Giirab,  reconstructed        .      79 

80.  Southern  temple  of  Amenhotep  III.  at  Elephantine        .      83 

81.  Plan  of  temple  of  Amenhotep  III.  near  El  Kab      .  .      84 

82.  Plan  of  temple  of  Hathor,  Deir  el  Medineh     .  .  .85 

83.  Plan  of  temple  of  Khonsu,  Karnak      .  .  .  .86 


XVI  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  rAoE 

84.  Pylon  with  masts,  from  a  bas-relief   in  the  temple  of 

Khonsu,   Karnak  .  .  .  .  .  •      §7 

85.  The  Ramesseum  restored,  showing  the  rise  of  the  ground     88 

86.  Crypts  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls  round  the  sanctuary 

of  Denderah  .......      89 

87.  The  pronaos  of  Edfu,  as  seen  from  the  top  of  the  eastern 

pylon  ....... 

88.  Plan  of  the  temple,  Edfu  .... 

89.  Plan  of  temple  of  Karnak  in  the  reign  of  Amenhotep  XL 

90.  Plan  of  hypostyle  hall,  Karnak 

91.  Plan  of  great  temple,  Luxor       .... 

92.  Plan  of  the  island  of  Philae  .... 

93.  Plan  of  specs,  Kalaat-Addah,  Xubia  . 

94.  Plan  of  speos,  Gebel  Silsileh      .... 

95.  Plan  of  the  Great  Speos,  Abu  Simbel  . 

96.  Speos  of  Hathor,  Abu  Simbel   .... 

97.  Plan  of  temple  of  Hatshepsut,  Deir  el  Bahari    . 

98.  Plan  of  temple  of  Seti  I.,  Abydos 

99.  Crio-sphinx  from  Wady  es  Sabuah    . 
100.  Couchant  ram,  with  statuette  of  royal  founder,  restored 

avenue  at  sphinxes,  Karnak     .... 
101-106.  Decorative  designs  from  Denderah 

107.  Two  Nile-gods,  bearing  lotus-flowers  and  libation  vases 

108.  Dado  decoration,  hall  of  Thothmes  III.,  Karnak  . 

109.  Ceiling  decoration,  from  tomb  of  Bakenrenf  (Bocchoris), 

Saqqara,  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty 
no.  Zodiacal  circle  of  Denderah        .... 

111.  Frieze  of  uraei  and  cartouches  .... 

112.  Wall  of  a  chamber  at  Denderah,  showing  the  arrange- 

ment of  the  tableaux    ..... 

113.  Obelisk  of  Senusert  I.,  Heliopolis 

114.  Obelisk  of  Senusert  I.,  Begig,  Fayum 

115.  Table  of  offerings,  Karnak  .... 

116.  Limestone  altar         ...... 

117.  Wooden  naos,  Turin  Museum    .... 

118.  A  mastaba        ....... 

119.  False  door  in  mastaba,  from  Mariette's  Le';  Mastabahs 

120.  Plan  of  forecourt  in  mastaba  of  Kaapir 

121.  Plan  of  forecourt  in  mastaba  of  Neferhotep 

122.  Door  in  fa9ade  of  mastaba  .... 

123.  Portico  and  door,  from  Mariette's  Les  Mastabahs 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XVlt 

PIG.  PAGE 

124.  Plan  of   chapel  in  mastaba  of   Khabiusokari,    Fourth 

Dynasty        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .135 

125.  Plan  of  chapel  in  mastaba  of  Ti,  Fifth  Dynasty  .  -135 

126.  Plan   of    chapel   in   mastaba  of   Shepsesptah,   Fourth 

Dynasty        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .135 

127.  Plan  of  chapel  in    mastaba    of    Affi,  Saqqara,  Fourth 

Dynasty        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -135 

128.  Plan  of  chapel  in  mastaba  of  Thenti  IL,  Fourth  Dynasty, 

Saqqara         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .136 

129.  Plan  of  chapel  in  mastaba  of  the  Red  Scribe,  Fourth 

Dynasty,   Saqqara  .  .  .  .  .  .136 

130.  Plan    of    the  mastaba  of    Ptahhotep,  Fifth  Dynasty, 

Saqqara        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  -137 

131.  Stela  in  tomb  of  Merruka,  Fifth  Dynasty,  Abiisir         .    138 

132.  Wall   scene    of    funerary   offerings,   from   mastaba  of 

Ptahhotep,  Fifth  Dynasty     .  .  .  .  .140 

133.  Wall    painting,    funeral    voyage,  mastaba  of  Li'rkhuu, 

Gizeh,  Fourth  Dynasty  .  .  .  .  .142 

134.  Wall  scene  from  mastaba  of  Ptahhotep,  Fifth  Dynasty  142 

135.  Plan  of  serdab  in  mastaba  at  Gizeh,  Fourth  Dynasty  .    143 

136.  Plan  of   serdab  and  chapel  in  mastaba  of  Rahotep  at 

Saqqara,  Fourth  Dynasty      .....    144 

137.  Plan  of  serdab  and  chapel  in  mastaba  of  Thenti  I.,  Saq- 

qara, Fourth  Dynasty    ......    144 

138.  Section  showing  shaft  and  vault  of   mastaba  at  Gizeh, 

Fourth  Dynasty    .......    145 

139.  Section  of  mastaba,  Saqqara,  Sixth  Djmasty         .  .    146 
T40.  Wall  painting  of  funerary  offerings,  mastaba  of  Nenka, 

Saqqara,  Sixth  Dynasty  .  .  .  .  -147 

141.  Plan  of   royal   tomb,   time    of   Menes,    First   Dynasty, 

Nagada  ........    149 

142.  Tomb  of  Senna,  with  panelled  east  wall,  Denderah,  Sixth 

Dynasty        ..... 

143.  Plan  of  tomb  of  King  Qa,  Abydos,  First  Dynasty 

144.  Stela  of  King  Perabsen,  Abydos,  Second  Dynasty 

145.  Royal  tomb.  Bet  Khallaf,  superstructure 

146.  Section  of  royal  tomb.  Bet  Khallaf    . 

147.  Step  pyramid  of  Saqqara 

148.  Pyramid  of  Medum 

149.  Section  of  passage  and  vault  in  pyramid  of 

150.  Section  of  the  Great  Pyramid.     W.  M.  F. 
b 


.    150 

)ynasty 

.    151 

Dynasty 

.    152 

. 

.    153 

. 

•    134 

. 

•    155 

. 

.    156 

Medum 

•    157 

Petrie 

.    159 

xviii  List  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

KIG.  ^  PAGE 

151.  Plan  and  section  of  the  pyramid  of  Unas              .  .163 

152.  Portcullis  and  passage,  pyramid  of  Unas     .          .  .    164 

153.  Section  of  the  pyramid  of  Unas  ....    165 

154.  Mastabat  el  Faraun           .          .          .          .          .  .167 

155.  Section  of  "vaulted"  brick  pyramid,  Abydos    .  .170 

156.  Section  of  "vaulted"  tomb,  Abydos          .          .  .170 

157.  Plan  of  tomb,  Abydos      .           .           .           .           .  .171 

158.  Theban  tomb  with  p3'ramidion,  from  scene  in  a  tomb  .    171 

159.  Theban  tomb  with  pyramidion,  from  wall  painting  .    172 
i6q.  Section  of  apis  tomb,  time  of  Amenhotep  IL        .  -172 

161.  Tombs  in  cliff  opposite  Assiian  .  .  .  -173 

162.  Fagade  of  tomb  of  Khnumhotep,  Beni  Hasan,  Twelfth 

Dynasty        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  '174 

163.  Fa9ade  of  tomb,  Assuan    .  .  .  .  .  '175 

164.  Plan  of  tomb  of  Khnumhotep,  Beni  Hasan  .  .176 

165.  Plan  of  unfinished  tomb,  Beni  Hasan  .  .  •    ^11 

166.  Funeral  procession  and  ceremonies,  from  wall  paintings, 

Thebes 178 

167.  Plan  of  tomb  of  Rameses  IV.    .  .  .  .  .184 

168.  Plan  of  tomb  of  Rameses  IV.,  from  Turin  papyrus      .    184 

169.  Plan  of  tomb  of  Seti  I.     .  .  .  .  .  -185 

170.  Wall  painting  of  the  fields  of  Aalu,  tomb  of  Rameses  III.  187 

171.  Wooden  model  of    sailing  boat,  Beni  Hasan,  Twelfth 

Dynasty        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .192 

172.  Wooden   model    and    servants    working,  Beni    Hasan, 

Twelfth  Dynasty  .  .  .  .  .  .193 

173.  Pestle  and  mortar  for  grinding  colours          .  .  .    195 
17^.  Comic  sketch  on  ostracon.     New  York  Museum    .          .    197 

175.  Mgnette  from  the  Book  of  the  Dead  (Saite  period)  .    198 

176.  Vignette  from  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  from  the  papyrus 

of  Hunefer  .......    199 

177.  Part  of  scene  on  a  wall  of  the  pre-dynastic  tomb  of 

HierakonpoHs        .  .  .  .  .  .  .200 

1 78-9.  Scenes  from  the  tomb  of  Khnumhotep  at  Beni  Hasan, 

Twelfth  Dynasty  .  .  .  .  .  -203 

180.  Scene    from  a  tomb  painting  in  the  British  Museum, 

Eighteenth  Djmasty      ......    204 

181.  Funerary  repast,  tomb  of  Prince  Horemheb,  Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ........   205 

182.  From  wall  painting,  Thebes,  Ramcsside  period    .  .   2(j7 

183.  From  wall  scene  in  tomb  of  Horemheb         .  .  .    209 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  XIX 

FIG.  I'AGE 

184.  From  wall  scene,  Ramcsseum    .....   209 

185.  Archers,  represented  on  walls  of  Medinet  Habu    .  ,210 

186.  Phalanx  of  Egyptian  infantry,  Ramcsseum  .  .211 

187.  Hittite  battalion,  Ramcsseum  .  .  .  .211 

188.  Pool    and  palm-trees,  from  wall  painting   in  tomb  of 

Rekhmara               .          .          .          .          .          .  .212 

189.  Scene  from  tomb  of  Rekhmara,  Eighteenth  Dynasty  .   213 

190.  Scene  from  mastaba  of  Ptahhotep,  Fifth  Dynasty  .    214 

191.  Palestrina  mosaic     .          .          .          .          .          .  -215 

192.  Sculptor's  sketch,  from  Old  Kingdom  tomb          .  .219 

193.  Sculptor's  sketch,  from  Old  Kingdom  tomb          .  .    220 

194.  Sculptor's  correction,  Medinet  Habu,  Rameses  III.  .    220 

195.  Bow  drill           .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .221 

196.  Sculptor's  trial  piece,  Eighteenth  Dynasty  .           .  .    224 
197-8.  Ceremonial  palette  of  King  Narmer,  archaic  period, 

Hierakonpolis  .  .  .  .  .  .  -232 

199.  King  Khasekhemui,  limestone,  Third  Dynasty      .  .233 

200.  Rahotep,  Third  Dynasty,  from  Medum       .  .  .    234 

201.  Nefert,  wife  of  Rahotep,  Third  Dynasty,  from  Medum  .    235 

202.  Panel  from  tomb  of  Hesi  .  .....    236 

203.  The  Great  Sphinx  of  Gizeh         .  .  .  .  .238 

204.  King  Khafra,  Fourth  Dynasty    .  .  .  .  -243 

205.  Cross-legged  scribe  at  the  Louvre,  Old  Kingdom    .  .    246 

206.  Cross-legged  scribe,  from  Saqqara       .  .  .  -247 

207.  Sheikh  el  Beled,  Old  Kingdom  ....   248 

208.  Head  of  Sheikh  el  Beled 249 

209.  Wooden  statue  of  a  woman.  Old  Kingdom  .  .250 

210.  The  kneeling  scribe.  Old  Kingdom      .  .  .  -251 

211.  A  bread-maker.  Old  Kingdom    .....   252 

212.  The  dwarf  Nemhotep,  Old  Kingdom  .  .  '253 

213.  One  of  the  Tanis  sphinxes  .....   255 

214.  Statuette  of  Akhenaten,  painted  limestone  .  .259 

215.  Head  of  Seti  I.,  bas-relief  .....   260 

216.  The  god  Amon,  and  Horemheb  ....   261 

217.  Head  of  a  queen,  Eighteenth  Dynasty  .  .  .   262 

218.  Head  of  Horemheb 263 

219.  Queen  Ameniritis      .......   264 

220.  The  goddess  Taurt.  Saite  work  ....   265 

221.  Hathor-cow  in  green  basalt,  Saite  work         .  .  .   266 

222.  Squatting  statue  of  Pedishashi,  Saite  work  .  .    267 

223.  Head  of  a  scribe,  Saite  work      .....   268 


XX 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

224. 

225. 

226. 

227. 

228. 

229. 

230. 

231- 
232. 

233- 
234- 
235- 
236. 
^37- 
^38. 
239- 
240. 
241. 
242. 

243- 
244. 

245- 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249. 

250. 
251- 
254- 

255- 
256. 
237- 
258. 
259- 
260. 
261. 
262. 

263. 


Colossus  of  Alexander  II. 

Statue  of  Horus,  Grcrco-Egyptian 

Group  from  Naga     ..... 

Slate  palettes,  predynastic  and  First  Dynasty 
Flint  knife,  predynastic    .... 

Flint  teeth  for  sickles         .... 

Girdle  tie  of  Isis        ..... 

Frog  amulet    ...... 

Lotus  column  amulet        .... 

Sacred  eye  or  uzai     .  .'         . 

Scarab    ....... 

Stone  vases,  predynastic  and  First  Dynasty 

Impression  of  cylinder-seal,  First  Dynasty 

Perfume  vase,  alabaster    . 

Perfume  vase,  alabaster    . 

Perfume  vase,  alabaster    . 

Perfume  vase,  alabaster    . 

Kohl- jar  ..... 

Black-topped  pottery 

Red    burnished    pottery    . 

Pottery  fish,  predynastic 

Red  pottery  with  basket-work  designs,  predynastic 

\'ase  painted  to  imitate  mottled  stone 

Decorated  vase,  predynastic 

Black  incised  pottery,  predynastic     . 

Lenticular    ampulla    of     ^lykenaean    type.    Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ..... 
False-necked  vase    .... 
3.  Decorated  vases,  pottery 
Parti-coloured    glass    vase,    bearing    name    of    Thoth- 

mes   III.        ..... 

Lenticular  ampulla,  parti-coloured  glass 

Parti-coloured  glass  vase  . 

Glass  goblets  of  Xesikhonsu 

Hippopotamus  in  blue  glaze 

Glazed  ware,  from  Thebes 

Glazed  ware,  from  Thebes 

Cup,  glazed  ware       .... 

Decoration    of     interior    of    small    bowl.     Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ..... 
Lenticular  vase,  glazed  ware,  Saite  period 


PAGE 

269 

270 
272 
274 
275 
276 
278 
278 
278 
279 
279 
282 
283 
284 
284 
284 
285 
285 
286 
287 
288 
288 
289 
289 
290 

291 
291 
292 

297 
297 
298 
298 

299 
300 
300 
301 

301 
302 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  XXI 


264.  Tiled  chamber  in  step  pyramid  of  Sac|qara 

265.  Tile  from  step  pyramid  of  Saqqara     . 

266.  Tile  inlay,  Tell  cl  Yahudich,  Twentieth  Dynasty 

267.  Tile  inlay,  Tell  el  Yahudich,  Twentieth  Dynasty 

268.  Inlaid  tiles.  Tell  el  Yahiidieh,  Twentieth  Dynasty 

269.  Tile  of  relief,  Tell  el  Yahudieh,  Twentieth  Dynasty 

270.  Tile  in  relief.  Tell  el  Yahudieh,  Twentieth  Dynasty 

271.  Ivory  spoon,  combs,  and  hairpins,  predynastic     . 

272.  Tusk  carved  with  human  face   .... 

273.  Carved  ivory  from  Hierakonpolis 

274.  Ivory  spoon     ....... 

275.  Wooden  statuette  of  officer.  Eighteenth  Dynasty 

276.  Wooden  statuette  of  priest,  Eighteenth  Dynasty 

277.  Wooden  statuette  of  the  Lady  Nai     . 
278-9.  Wooden  spoons,  for  perfume  or  unguents 
280-1.  Wooden  spoons  for  perfume  or  unguents 
282-3.  Wooden  spoons  for  perfume  or  unguents 
284-5.  Wooden  spoons  for  perfume  or  unguents 
286.  Wooden  spoon  for  perfume  or  unguents 
287-9.  Chests  ....... 

290.  Construction  of  a  mummy-case,  wall  scene,  Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ....... 


291 .  Mask  of  coffin  of  Rameses  II.,  tempo,  Twenty-first  Dynasty  322 


292.  Mummy-case  of  Queen  Aahmesnefertari 

293.  Panel  portrait,  Graeco-Roman.     National  Gallery 

294.  Carved  and  painted  mummy  canopy  . 

295.  Mummy-couch  with  canopy,  Grajco-Roman 

296.  Mummy-sledge  and  canopy         .... 

297.  Inlaid  chair,  Eleventh  Dynasty 

298.  Inlaid  stool,  Eleventh  Dynasty 

299.  Royal  chair  of  state,  wall  painting,  Rameses  III. 

300.  Women  weaving,  wall  scene.  Twelfth  Dynasty     . 

301.  Man  weaving,  wall  scene.  Twelfth  Dynasty 

302.  Border    pattern    in     cut    leather-work,     Twenty-first 

Dynasty        ....... 

303.  Bark  with  cut  leather-work  sails.  Twentieth  Dynasty 

304.  Bark  with  cut  leather-work  sails,  Twentieth  Dynasty 

305.  Bronze  jug      ....... 

306.  Bronze  jug,  seen  from  above     .... 

307.  Lamp,  Graeco-Roman  period      .... 

308.  Bronze  statuette  of  Takushet    .... 


303 
304 
304 
304 
305 
305 
306 

307 
307 
308 

309 
310 

311 
312 

313 
314 
315 
316 

317 
318 

319 


323 
326 
328 
329 
330 
330 
331 
331 
332 
333 

334 
335 
336 
340 
340 
341 
342 


XXll  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. 

309.  Bronze  statuette  of  Horus  .... 

310.  Bronze  statuette  of  Mosu  .... 
31 T.   Bronze  lion  from  Horbeit,  Saite  period 

312.  Gold  worker,  wall  scene    ..... 

313.  Gold  cup  of  General  Tahuti,  Eighteenth  Dynasty 

314.  Silver  vase  of  Thmuis         ..... 

315.  Silver  vase  of  Thmiiis        ...... 

316.  Ornamental    vase    in     precious    metal,    wall    painting 

Twentieth    Dynasty 

317.  Crater    of    precious  metal,  wall    painting,    Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ..... 

318.  Hydria    of  precious  metal,  wall  painting 

Dynasty        ....... 

319.  Enamelled  cruet,  wall  painting.  Eighteenth  Dynasty 

320.  Enamelled  cruet,  wall  painting.  Eighteenth  Dynasty 

321.  Gold  centrepiece  of  Amenhotep  III.,  wall  painting 

322.  Crater    of   precious    metal,    wall  painting.    Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ....... 

323.  Crater    of  precious  metal,  wall   painting,  Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ....... 

324.  Ewer    of    precious    metal,    wall  painting.    Eighteenth 

Dynasty        ....... 

325.  Signet-ring  with  bezel        ..... 
326-9.   Bracelets,  First  Dynasty         .... 

330.  Gold  cloisonne  pectoral,  Dahshur,  Twelfth  Dynasty 

331.  Mirror  of  Queen  Aahhotep  .... 

332.  Bracelet  of  Queen  Aahhotep      .... 

333.  Bracelet  of  Queen  Aahhotep       .... 

334.  Diadem  of  Queen  Aahhotep       .... 

335.  Bold  uiekh  necklace  of  Queen  Aahhotep      . 

336.  Pectoral    of    Queen   Aahhotep,    bearing   cartouche    of 

of  Aahmes  I. 

337.  Poniard  of  Queen  Aahhotep 

338.  Poniard  of  Queen  Aahhotep 

339.  Battle-axe  of  Queen  Aahhotep   . 

340.  Funerary  bark  of  Queen  Aahhotep    . 

341.  Ring  of  Rameses  II.  ... 

342.  Bracelet  of  Prince  Psar    . 


THE   PRINCIPAL   EPOCHS    OF    ANCIENT 
EGYPTIAN    HISTORY. 

PREDYNASTIC    PERIOD. 

This  ended  with  Menes.  who  united  the  kingdoms  of  the  North  and 
of  the  South. 

PROTO-DYNASTIC    PERIOD. 

Thinite  :    First  and  Second  Dynasties.     Steady  development  and 
organisation  of  the  country,  r 
Memphite  :  Third  Dynasty. 

OLD    KINGDOM. 

Memphite  :  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth  Dynasties. — An  age  of  power- 
ful Pharaohs,  builders  of  the  Pyramids. 

A  period  of  weak  government  and  civil  strife  followed.  A  Theban 
family  finally  secured  the  chief  power  and  gradually  reunited  the  country. 

MIDDLE    KINGDOM. 

Theban  :  Eleventh,  Twelfth,  and  Thirteenth  Dynasties.  —  Egj'pt 
highly  prosperous.  The  feudal  system  fully  developed  under  powerful 
Pharaohs.     Nubia  subjugated. 

A  period  of  civil  war  under  the  Fourteenth  Dynasty  was  followed  by 
the  Hyksos  domination  of  the  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Dynasties. 

NEW    KINGDOM,  circa  1600-1080  B.C. 

Theban  :  Seventeenth,  Eighteenth,  Nineteenth,  and  Twentieth 
Dynasties. — The  great  period  of  Asiatic  Conquest  and  Empire  was 
under  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Dynasties. 

Egypt  gradually  declined  under  the  later  Ramessides  (Rameses  \\  - 
XII.)  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty,  and  the  Empire  fell  to  pieces  under 
the  Twenty-first  (Tanite)  Dynasty. 

FOREIGN    DOMINATION,  circa  950-666  B.C. 

Twenty-second,  Twenty-third,  Twenty-fourth,  and  Twenty-flfih 
Dynasties.— Libyans  and  Ethiopians  in  turn  occupied  the  throne,  the 
seat  of  government  being  successively  at  Bubastis,  Tanis,  and  Sais. 

LATE    EGYPTIAN    PERIOD,  666-525  B.C. 

Sa'ite  :  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty. — A  time  of  prosperity  under  native 
Pharaohs,  and  reversion  to  ancient  conventions  of  art  in  Egypt. 

PERSIAN    DOMINATION,  525-408  B.C. 

Twenty-seventh  Dynasty.  —  The  Persian  monarchs  reigned  as 
Pharaohs, 

The  Twenty-eighth,  Twenty-ninth,  and  Thirtieth  Dynasties  were 
Eg}'ptian,  but  they  only  maintained  their  partial  independence  by  the 
aid  of  Greek  mercenaries,  and  were  finally  reconquered  by  Persia. 

Alexander  the  Great  took  possession  of  Egypt  332  li.c. 

xxiv 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHAEOLOGY. 


'2.  (^^7  ^ 


^V3  "^"^.--^^ 

CHAPTER    I. 

ARCHITECTURE-CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 

The  earlier  archaeologists,  when  visiting  Egypt, 
concentrated  their  attention  upon  tombs  and  temples, 
and  manifested  little  or  no  interest  in  the  existing 
remains  of  private  dwellings  and  fortified  buildings. 
Yet  few  countries  have  preserved  so  many  relics  of 
their  ancient  civil  architecture,  and  within  the  last 
few  years  systematic  excavations  have  been  carried 
out  with  excellent  results.  Setting  aside  towns  of 
Roman  or  Byzantine  date,  which  till  recently  were 
standing  almost  intact  at  Kuft,  Kom  Ombo,  and 
El  Agandiyeh,  considerable  portions  of  ancient  Thebes 
are  still  standing  to  the  east  and  south  of  Karnak. 
At  Memphis  there  are  large  mounds,  the  core  of 
which  is  formed  by  houses  in  good  preservation.  Yet 
earlier  are  the  remains  at  Abydos,  where  the  plans 
of  the  Thinite  town  have  been  made  out,  and  where 
vestiges  of  the  primitive  huts  still  exist. 

At  Kahun  the  remains  of  a  whole  provincial  town 

of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  have  been  laid  bare.     In  the 

royal    town    of    Tell  el  Amarna    of   the    Eighteenth 

Dynasty    much    important    work    has    already    been 

I 


2  ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    jSIILITARV. 

done,  and  its  streets  and  houses  are  now  in  process  of 
being  excavated. 

At  Tell  el  Maskhutah  the  granaries  of  Pithom  are 
standing  ;  at  Tanis  and  Bubastis  Saitic  and  Ptolemaic 
towns  have  been  excavated.  A  long  list  might  be 
made  of  less-known  localities  where  ruins  of  private 
dwellings  may  be  seen,  which  date  back  to  the 
Ramessides,  and  even  to  the  earliest  dynastic  period. 

With  regard  to  fortresses,  Abydos  itself  can  furnish 
two,  of  which  one  undoubtedly  dates  back  to  the 
earliest  dynasties.  The  ramparts  of  El  Kab,  Kom  el 
Ahmar,  El  Hibeh,  Kuban  (opposite  Dakkeh),  of 
Heliopolis,  and  of  Thebes  are  standing,  and  most 
of  them  have  been  carefully  excavated. 

I. PRIVATE    DWELLINGS. 

The  soil  of  Egypt,  periodically  washed  by  the  in- 
undation, is  a  black,  compact,  homogeneous  mud, 
which,  when  dry,  acquires  the  hardness  of  stone  ;  from 
time  immemorial  it  has  been  used  by  the  fellahin  in 
constructing  their  houses.  The  poorest  huts  of  the 
present  day  are  little  more  than  a  rudely  shaped  mass 
of  this  mud.  A  rectangular  space  8  or  lo  feet  in 
width  and  15  or  16  feet  in  length  is  enclosed  by 
wicker-work  made  of  palm-branches  coated  both 
inside  and  out  with  a  la}-er  of  mud.  As  this  coating 
cracks  in  the  drying,  the  fissures  are  filled  in,  and 
another  coating  of  mud  is  added  until  the  walls 
attain  a  thickness  varying  from  4  to  12  inches. 
Finally  the  hut  is  roofed  in  with  palm-branches  and 
straw,  covered  with  a  layer  of  beaten  earth.  The 
height  varies.     Usually  the  ceiling  is  so  low  that  to 


BRICK-MAKING.  3 

rise  suddenly  is  to  run  the  risk  of  knocking  one's 
head,  while  in  some  huts  the  roof  is  as  much  as  7  feet 
from  the  ground.  There  is  no  window  of  any  de- 
scription to  admit  light  and  air  ;  occasionally  there  is 
a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  roof  to  let  out  the  smoke, 
but  this  luxury  is  by  no  means  universal.  The 
remains  of  huts  of  the  primitive  period  show  that 
this  method  of  building  of  the  modern  Egyptian  is 
an  inheritance  from  his  remote  ancestors  of  the  time 
of  the  earliest  dynasties.  At  Abydos,  where  the 
royal  tombs  of  the  First  Dynasty  have  been  found, 
enough  vestiges  of  the  ancient  town  remain  to  prove 
that  the  earliest  dwellings  of  the  Egyptians  were 
similar  to  those  of  the  fellahin  of  to-day. 

It  is  not  always  easy  at  the  first  glance  to  distin-  w 
guish  between  the  huts  that  are  made  of  wattle  and 
daub  and  those  built  of  crude  brick.  The  ordinary 
Egyptian  brick  is  made  of  mud,  mixed  with  a  little 
sand  and  chopped  straw,  moulded  into  oblong  bricks 
and  dried  in  the  sun.  Building  operations  are  begun 
by  a  man  digging  up  the  ground  on  the  selected  site. 
One  set  of  men  carry  off  the  clods  he  turns  up  and 
heap  them  together,  while  another  set  knead  them 
with  their  feet  and  reduce  them  to  a  homogeneous 
mass  of  mud.  When  the  paste  is  sufficiently  kneaded, 
the  master  workman  runs  it  into  moulds  of  hard  wood. 
The  bricks  are  carried  off  by  an  assistant  and  laid 
out  in  rows  some  distance  apart  to  dry  (fig.  i).  A 
careful  workman  will  leave  them  in  the  sun  for  six 
hours  or  even  a  whole  day,  after  which  the  bricks  are 
stacked  in  such  a  manner  that  the  air  can  circulate 
freely  among  them,  and  so  they  remain  for  a  week 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 


or  two  before  they  are  used.  Frequently,  however, 
the  bricks  are  merely  dried  for  a  few  hours  in  the  sun 
and  used  while  they  are  still  moist.  Notwithstanding 
this  casual  treatment,  the  mud  is  so  tenacious  that 
the  brick  does  not  easily  get  out  of  shape  ;  the  outer 
face  disintegrates  owing  to  atmospheric  conditions, 
but  inside  the  wall  the  bricks  remain  intact,  and  are 
still  separable  from  each  other.  A  good  modern 
workman  will  easily  turn  out  i,ooo  bricks  a  day, 
and  after  a  week's  practice  he  will  reach  i,200. 
The  ancient  workman,  whose 


Fig.  I.— Brickmaking,  from  Eighteenth  Dynasty  tomb-painting, 
tomb  of  Rekhmara. 

tools  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  present  day,  must 
have  obtained  equally  good  results. 

The  ancient  mould  in  general  use  for  medium-sized 
bricks  measures  87  x  4'3  x  5*5  inches,  and  for  the 
larger  bricks,  15-0  x  7-1  x  55  inches,  although  both 
larger  and  smaller  moulds  have  been  discovered. 
Bricks  from  the  royal  brickyards  are  occasionally 
stamped  with  the  cartouche  of  the  reigning  sovereign, 
those  from  private  factories  are  marked  with  one  or 
more  conventional  signs  in  red  ink,  a  print  of  the 
moijlder's  finger  or  the  maker's  stamp.  The  greater 
number  have  no  mark.  The  ordinary  burnt  brick 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  in  common  use  before 


FOUNDATIONS   OF    HOUSES.  5 

the  Graeco-Roman  period,  although  some  are  known 
of  Ramesside  times.  Glazed  bricks  arc  occasionally 
found  in  the  Delta  ;  one  of  these,  now  in  the  Cairo 
Museum,  is  inscribed  in  black  ink  with  the  name  of 
Rameses  III.  In  that  instance  the  glaze  is  green, 
but  other  fragments  are  blue,  red,  yellow,  or  white. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  does  not  admit  of  deep 
foundations.  On  the  surface  there  is  a  shallow  bed  of 
made  earth  which,  except  on  the  site  of  large  towns, 
is  of  no  depth.  Below  this  there  is  a  very  dense 
humus  intersected  by  narrow  veins  of  sand,  and 
below  this  again — at  the  level  of  infiltration — there  is 
a  bed  of  mud,  more  or  less  liquid  according  to  the 
season.  At  the  present  day  the  masons  arc  content 
to  dig  through  the  made  earth  and  to  commence 
operations  as  soon  as  they  reach  virgin  soil  :  if  this 
should  be  too  deep  down,  they  lay  the  foundations 
about  3  feet  below  the  surface.  The  Pharaonic 
Egyptians  did  likewise  :  1  have  never  found  any 
ancient  dwelling  where  the  foundations  went  deeper 
than  4  feet,  and  this  was  exceptional  ;  in  most  cases 
the  depth  does  not  exceed  2  feet. 

In  many  cases  no  trenches  were  dug  ;  the  ground 
was  merely  levelled,  and  probably  well  watered  to 
increase  the  consistency  of  the  soil,  and  the  bricks 
were  then  laid  on  the  surface.  When  the  building 
was  finished  the  scraps  of  mortar,  the  broken  bricks, 
and  all  the  accumulated  rubbish  of  building  material 
would  form  a  layer  about  8  inches  to  a  foot 
deep  round  the  base  of  the  buildings,  the  buried 
portion  of  the  walls  thus  taking  the  place  of  founda- 
tions.    When  the  house  was  to  be  built  on   the  site 


6  ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 

of  an  earlier  one  fallen  into  decay  or  accidentally 
destroyed,  it  was  not  considered  necessary  to  raze 
the  old  walls  completely.  The  mass  of  ruin  was 
levelled  to  an  even  surface,  and  the  new  building  was 
begun  several  feet  higher  than  its  predecessor  :  thus 
every  town  is  built  on  one  or  more  artificial  mounds 
which  are  sometimes  as  much  as  80  or  90  feet  in 
height. 

Greek  historians  attribute  this  peculiarity  to  the 
sagacit}'  of  the  kings,  more  particularly  of  Sesostris, 
who,  they  imagined,  desired  to  place  their  palaces 
beyond  reach  of  the  inundations.  Some  modern 
authors  have  described  the  method  by  which  they 
believe  this  was  effected  ;  that  massive  brick  plat- 
forms were  constructed  at  regular  intervals,  arranged 
in  cross  lines,  the  interstices  filled  with  earth  and 
rubbish,  and  the  city  built  on  this  gigantic  chess- 
board. Wherever  I  have  excavated,  more  especially 
at  Thebes,  I  have  found  nothing  that  answers  to  this 
description.  The  so-called  platforms  that  intersect 
each  other  below  the  later  buildings  are  merely  the 
vestiges  of  earlier  houses  which  are  themselves  resting 
on  the  remains  of  }'et  more  ancient  buildings. 

Architects  were  not  deterred  by  the  shallowness  of 
the  foundations  from  boldly  erecting  lofty  buildings  ; 
in  the  ruins  of  Memphis  there  are  walls  standing  from 
30  to  40  feet  in  height.  The  only  precaution  taken 
was  to  thicken  the  walls  at  the  base  and  to  vault  the 
floors  (fig.  2).  The  wall  thickness  for  a  low  building 
was  about  16  inches,  but  for  a  house  of  several  stories 
it  would  be  as  much  as  3  or  4  feet.  Large  beams 
embedded  at  intervals  in  the  brickwork  consolidated 


PLAN    OF   TOWNS. 


and  bound  it  together.  The  ground  floor  was  fre- 
quently built  of  stone  carefully  worked,  and  brick 
was  relegated  to  the  upper  stories.  Limestone  from 
the  adjacent  hills  was  the  only  stone  systematically 
employed  for  this  purpose.  The  fragments  of  sand- 
stone, granite,  and  alabaster  mixed  with  it  were 
generally  brought  from  some  ruined  temple.  The 
Egyptians  of  those  days  had  no  more  scruple  than 
those  of  the  present  time 
in  despoiling  their  ruined 
and  neglected  monuments. 
The  houses  of  an  ancient 
Egyptian  town  were  clustered 
round  its  temple,  and  the 
temple  stood  in  a  rectangular 
enclosure  to  which  access 
was  obtained  through  im- 
posing gateways  in  the  sur- 
rounding brick  wall.  The 
gods  dwelt  in  fortified 
mansions  or  redoubts,  to 
which    the    people    of    the 

place  might  fly  for  safety  in  the  event  of  any  sudden 
attack  upon  their  town.  Such  towns  as  were  built 
all  at  one  period  by  prince  or  king  were  fairly 
regular  in  plan,  having  wide  paved  streets  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  with  a  stone  channel  down  the 
middle  to  carry  off  water  and  drainage,  and  the 
buildings  in  line  (fig.  3).  Cities  whose  growth  had 
been  determined  by  the  chances  and  changes  of  cen- 
turies were  characterised  by  no  such  regularity.  Their 
houses  stood  in  a  maze  of  blind  alleys,  and  narrow, 


Fig.  2. — House  with  vaulted 
iloors,  against  the  northern 
wall  of  the  great  temple  of 
Medinet  Habu. 


8  ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 

dark  strangling  streets,  with  here  and  there  the 
branch  of  a  canal,  almost  dried  up  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  }'ear,  and  a  muddy  pond  where  the  cattle 
drank  and  the  women   came  for  water.     Somewhere 


7  ;  7500. 


23 


Fig-.  3. — Plan  of  three-quarters  of  the  town  of  Hat-Hotep-Senusert 
(Kahun),  built  for  the  officials  and  workmen  emplo5-ed  in  con- 
nection with  the  p5TaiTiid  of  Senusert  II.  at  Illahun.  The  work- 
men's quarters  are  principally  on  the  western  side.  Illahun, 
KaJuDi,  mid  Gitrob,  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


in  each  town  was  an  open  space  shaded  by  sycamores 
or  acacias,  and  hither  on  market-days  came  the 
peasants  of  the  district  two  or  three  times  in  the 
month.  There  were  waste  places  where  rubbish  and 
refuse  were  thrown  to  be  quarrelled  over  by  vultures, 
hawks,  and  dogs. 


DOMESTIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  poorer  classes  lived  in  hovels  which,  though 
built  of  brick,  were  little  better  than  the  huts  of  the 
fellahin.  At  Karnak  in  the  Pharaonic  town,  at  Kom 
Ombo  in  the  Roman  town,  at  Medinet  Habu  in  the 
Coptic  town,  the  frontage  of  dwellings 
of  this  class  rarely  exceeds  12  or  16  feet 
in  length.  They  consist  of  a  ground 
floor,  with  occasionally  one  or  two 
living-rooms  above. 

The     richer     classes,     shopkeepers, 

small  officials,  and  foremen,  were  better 

housed.      These   houses   were   built   of 

brick,  and  were  rather  small,  but  they    Fig.  4.— Plan  of 

contained     some     half-dozen     rooms,       house,  Medmet 

'        Habu. 
which     communicated     by     means    of 

doors  that  were  usually  arched  over.  Some  few  of 
the  houses  were  two  or  three  stories  high.  Frequently 
they  were  separated  from  the  street  b}-  a  narrow 
courtyard,  at  the  back  of  which  was  a  passage  with 
chambers  opening  from  it  on  either  side  (fig.  4). 
More  often  the  court  was  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by 
chambers  (fig.  5),  while  yet 
more  often  the  house  fronted 
directly  on  to  the  street.  In 
the  latter  case  the  facade  con- 
sisted of  a  high  wall,  painted  or 
whitewashed,  surmounted  by  a 
cornice.  Even  in  better  houses  the  only  ornamen- 
tation of  the  outer  walls  consisted  of  angular  grooving 
surmounted  by  representations  of  two  lotus-flowers 
joined  together  at  the  neck  (see  figs.  27,  28).     There 


_l 

..  1 

a 

1 
1 
1 
1 
J 

E 

Fig.  5.  —  Plan  of  house, 
Medinet  Habu. 


lO 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


was  no  opening  except  the  door  and  possibly  a 
few  small  windows  (fig.  6).  Even  in  unpretentious 
houses  the  doorway  was  often  of  stone,  the  door- 
posts projected  slightly 
beyond  the  level  of  the 
wall,  and  over  the  lintel 
was  a  painted  or  sculp- 
tured cornice.  Having 
crossed  the  threshold, 
one  passed  successively 
through  two  small  and 
dark  apartments,  the 
second  of  which  opened 
into  the  central  court 
(fig-  7)'  '^he  best  rooms 
in  the  houses  of  the 
wealthier     citizens     were 

sometimes  lighted  through  a  square  opening  in   the 

centre  of  the  ceiling  supported  on  v.'ooden  columns. 

In    the   Twelfth    Dynasty   town 

of   Kahun    the    shafts    of   these 

columns   rested  on   round  stone 

bases.    They  were  octagonal,  and 

about  10  inches  in  diameter. 
The   larger  hou^es    possessed 

a  reception  hall  at  the  rear  with 

a  shady  colonnade  on  the  south 

side,    while     the     principal    hall 

was  colonnaded  and  had  a  tank 

about  14  inches  square  in  the  centre  sunk  in  the  stone 

pavement    (fig.     8).       Even     the    poorer    houses    at 

Kahun  contained  a  stone  tank,  and  there  is  evidence 


Fig.  6. — Facade  of  a  house  toward 
the  street,  New  Kingdom. 


H     H 


Fig.  7. — Plan  of  central 
court  of  house,  second 
Theban  period. 


DOMESTIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


II 


that  this  luxury  was  uuiversal,  except  among  the 
poorest,  in  houses  of  the  Old  Kingdom.  At  Tell  el 
Amarna  an  elaborate  bath  with  water  supply  has 
been  found  in  the  house  of  a  high  official  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty,  and  other  indications  bear 
witness  to  the  excellent  hygienic  and  sanitary 
arrangements  known  in  ancient  Egypt.* 

In  the  poorer  houses  the  family  crowded  together 
in  one  or  two  rooms  during  the  winter,  and  slept  out 
on  the  roof  under  mosquito-nets  in  summer.     On  the 


Fig.  8. — Restoration  of  the  hall  in  a  Twelfth  Dynasty  house. 
lllahitn,  Kaimn,  and  Gurob,  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 

roof  also  the  women  gossiped  and  cooked.  The 
ground  floor  included  store-rooms,  barns,  and  stables. 
Private  granaries  were  usually  built  in  pairs  (fig.  ii) 
in  the  same  long,  conical  shape  as  the  State  granaries, 
of  brick,  carefully  plastered  with  mud  inside  and  out. 
In  the  walls  and  floors  of  their  home  the  people 
would  make  hiding-places,  where  they  could  secrete 
their  treasures — nuggets  of  gold  and  silver,  precious 
stones  and  jewellery — both  from  thieves  and  tax- 
collectors.       Wherever    a    second    floor    existed,    the 

*  L.  Borchardt,  Milthcilitngcn  Orient.  Gesellscliaft.,  No.  50,  1912. 


12 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 


arrangement  of  rooms  was  almost  exactly  the  same 
as  on  the  ground  floor.  The  upper  rooms  were 
reached  by  an  outside  staircase,  very  steep  and 
narrow,  with  small  square  landings  at  frequent 
intervals.  The  rooms  were  oblong,  and  the  door 
ordinarily  afforded  the  only  means  for  lighting  and 
ventilation.  In  cases  where  windows  were  opened 
on     to    the    street,    they    were    mere    irregular,    un- 


Fig.  9. — Wall-painting  in  a  Twelfth  Dynasty  house,  Kahiin.  Below 
is  a  view  of  the  outside,  above  is  a  view  of  the  inside  of  the 
building.     lUahuii,  Kahun,  and  Gurob,  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 

symmetrical  air-holes  near  the  ceiling,  provided  with 
a  grill  of  wooden  bars  and  closed  with  a  wooden 
shutter.  The  floors  were  bricked  or  paved,  or  more 
frequently  consisted  of  beaten  earth.  The  walls  were 
sometimes  whitewashed,  sometimes  decorated  with 
bright  colours,  red  and  yellow,  or  painted  with 
familiar  domestic  scenes  (fig.  9).  The  roof  was  flat. 
At  Kahun    it  consisted  of  beams  of  wood,  thatched 


FIREPLACES. 


13 


and  plastered  with  mud  both  inside  and  out.  Some- 
times it  was  furnished  with  one  or  two  ventilators, 
the  mulkafs  of  modern  Egyptian  dwcUings,  and 
generally  there  was 
a  washhouse  on  the 
roof,  and  a  small 
sleeping  -  chamber 
for  the  slaves  or 
the  guards  (fig.  10). 
The  household 
fire  was  on  the 
ground  floor.  The 
hearth  was  hol- 
lowed out  of  the 
earthen  floor, 
usually  to  one  side 
of  the  room,  and  the  smoke  escaped  through  a  hole 
in  the  ceiling  ;  branches  of  trees,  charcoal,  and  dried 
cakes  of  ass  or  cow  dung  were  used  for  fuel.  At 
Abydos,    in    the    primitive   Thinite    town,   clustered 

round  the  Temple 
of  Osiris,  were 
found  pottery 
hearths,  in  which 
charcoal  was  burnt 
— in  one  of  them 
the  cinders  were 
still  lying. 

The  mansions  of 


Fig.  10.  — Box  representing  a  iiouse 
(British  Museum). 


Fig.  II. — Mansion  with  granaries,  from  the 
tomb  of  Anna,  Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


the  great  and  wealthy  covered  a  considerable  area  ; 
they  generally  stood  in  the  midst  of  a  garden  or 
of    a    courtyard     planted    with    trees,    and    like    the 


M 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


houses  of  the  middle  classes  crenellated  walls  turned 
a  blank  front  to  the  street  (fig.  ii).  Thus  the 
domestic  life  was  secluded  and  concealed,  and  the 
pleasure  of  watching  the  passers-by  was  sacrificed  to 
the  advantages  of  not  being  seen.  The  door  was 
approached  by  a  flight  of  two  or  three  steps  or  by  a 
portico  supported  on  columns  (fig.  12),  and  adorned 
with  statues  (fig.  13),  which  gave  it  a  monumental 
appearance,  and  indicated  the  social  importance  of  the 
family  ;  or  again  it  consisted  of  a  pylon  similar  to 
those  at   the  entrance  of  the  temples.     The  interior 


Fig.  12. — Portico  of  mansion, 
second  Theban  period. 


Fig.  13. — Portico  of  mansion, 
second  Theban  period. 


Wall-Paintings,  Tell  el  Amarna. 


almost  resembled  a  small  town  divided  into  quarters 
by  irregular  walls.  In  some  cases  the  dwelling-house 
stood  at  the  farther  end  ;  while  the  granaries,  stables, 
and  domestic  offices  were  distributed  in  different  parts 
of  the  enclosure. 

We  have  the  remains  of  some  houses  at  Tell  el 
Amarna,  and  of  the  palace  of  Akhenaten  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty,  and  with  their  aid,  guided  by 
two  of  the  numerous  pictures  or  plans  preserved  in 
tombs  of  that  period,  we  can  gain  a  very  fair  idea  of 


MANSIONS. 


IS 


the  mansions  of  the  great  Egyptian  nobles  and  of  high 
officials. 

The  first  of  the  pictorial  plans  that  we  will  examine 
represents   a    Theban    house,   half   palace,   half  villa 


Fig.  14. — Plan  of  a  Theban  house  with  garden,  from  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  tomb-painting. 


(figs.  14,  1 5).  The  enclosure  is  rectangular,  surrounded 
by  a  crenellated  wall.  The  principal  entrance  opens 
upon  a  road  bordered  with  trees,  by  the  side  of  a 
canal    or    a    branch    of    the     Nile.       The    garden    is 


i6 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 


symmetrically  divided  by  low  stone  walls.  In  the 
centre  is  a  large  trellis  supported  on  four  rows  of 
small  columns,  to  right  and  'left  are  four  pools  stocked 
with  ducks  and  geese,  two  leafy  conservatories,  two 
summer-houses,  and  avenues  of  sycamores,  date-palms 
and  dom-palms.      At  the  back   facing  the  entrance 


Fig.  15- 


■Perspective  view  of  the  Theban  house,  from  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  tomb-painting. 


is  the   house,  two-storied  and    of  small    dimensions, 
surmounted  by  a  painted  cornice. 

The  second  plan  is  taken  from  one  of  the  tombs  of 
Tell  el  Amarna  itself  (figs.  i6,  17).  The  house  repre- 
sented here,  in  the  original  picture  stands  at  the  end 
of  a  garden,  surrounded  by  store-houses.  It  represents 
the  palace  of  Ai,  son-in-law  to  Akhenaten,  who  himself 


FACADES   OF    MANSIONS. 


17 


in  turn  became  King  of  Egypt.  In  front  (jf  the 
entrance  to  the  palace  there  is  an  artificial  pool  of 
water  with  sloping  sides  protected  by  a  curb,  and 
with  two  sets  of  steps  leading  down  to  it. 

The  building  itself  is  a  rectangle,  the  facade  wider 
than  the  sides.  In  the  centre  is  a  great  doorway 
which  opens  into  a  courtyard  or  wide  passage 
flankeci  by  stone 
chambers.  Two 
small  chambers 
arranged  sym- 
metrically at 
each  corner  of 
the  back  wall 
contain  the 
staircases  that 
lead  to  the  ter- 
raced roof  This 
outer  building 
forms  the  frame 
to   the    actual 


dwelling  -house 


Fig.  16. — Part  of  the  palace  of  Ai,  from  tomb- 
painting,  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  Tell  el  Amarna. 

The   facade  has 

a  portico  of  eight  columns,  and  is  divided  in  the 
centre  by  the  pylon.  Passing  through  this  doorway, 
one  entered  a  sort  of  central  passage  divided  by 
two  transverse  walls  with  doors  in  them  so  arranged 
as  to  form  a  series  of  three  courts.  The  central 
one  was  flanked  with  chambers,  the  first  and  third 
opened  right  and  left  on  smaller  courts  in  which 
were  the  stairs  leading  to  the  roof.  This  central 
dwelling    was  the    private   dwelling    of   the   king,  or 


i8 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


the  great  nobles,  where  only  the  family  and  intimate 
friends  had  the  right  of  access.  The  number  of 
stories  and  the  arrangement  of  the  facade  differed 
according  to  the  caprice  of  the  owner.  The  frontage 
was  generally  a  plain  wall.  Sometimes  it  was 
divided  into  three  parts,  with  the  middle  division 
projecting,  in  which  case  the  two  wings  were 
colonnaded   on    each   story   (fig.    i8)   or    surmounted 


Fig.  17. — Perspective  vitvv  of  the  palace  of  A'i,  Eighteenth  Dj'nast}', 
Tell  el  Amarna. 

by  an  open  gallery  (fig.  19).  The  central  pavilion 
occasionally  has  the  appearance  of  a  tower  which 
dominates  the  rest  of  the  building  (fig.  20).  The 
facade  is  often  decorated  with  slender  wooden 
colonnades  that  support  nothing,  but  serve  to  relieve 
the  severe  aspect  of  the  exterior.  The  decoration 
of  the  inner  walls  was  generally  very  simple.  They 
were  usually  whitewashed  or  colour-washed  and 
bordered    with    a    polychrome    band,    but    in    some 


WALLS   AND   CEILINGS. 


19 


instances  they  were  elaborately  painted  with  pictured 
scenes.     The   ceilings   were    somctinies   white,  some- 


Fig.  18. — Frontage  of  house,  second  Theban  period. 

times    decorated    with    geometric    patterns    (fig.    21), 
parti-coloured  squares  (fig.  22),  or  other  conventional 


Fig.  19. — Frontage  of  house,  second  Theban  period. 

designs  very  similar  to  tho^e    in    the    tomb    ceilings 
(fig-  23). 


20 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY 


Fig.  20. — Central  pavilion 
of  house,  in  form  of 
tower,  second  Theban 
period. 


So  far  we  have  followed  the  pictured  plans.  We 
can  now  turn  to  the  actual  remains  of  the  ruined 
palace  of  Akhenaten  ^^  at  Tell 
el  Amarna.  A  long  double 
mud  wall  on  the  east  extended 
the  full  length  of  the  palace 
next  the  high  road.  In  the 
centre  this  facade  was  broken 
by  a  great  pylon  with  a  chariot- 
way  anci  two  footways  by  which 
the  palace  was  entered.  To  right  and  left  were  two 
chambers.  At  the  south  of 
the  enclosure  was  an  immense 
hall  measuring  423  x  234  feet, 
containing  542  mud  pillars 
52  inches  square,  and  com- 
municating with  five  smaller 
halls.  Here  the  pillars  were 
whitened  and  the  ceilings  were 
painted  with  vine-leaves  and  bunches  of  grapes  on  a 
_  \'ellow  ground.     The  palace  is 

a  mass  of  ruins.  The  stone  has 
been  removed  b\'  the  villagers 
for  their  own  use,  but  against 
the  enclosing  wall  on  the  north- 
east are  substantial  remains  of 
the  queen's  pavilion,  including 
a  large  hall  21  feet  x  51  feet, 
where  is  the  well-known  painted 
floor.  Thence  a  door  leads  to  an  open  colonnaded 
court.      In  the  centre  was  a  well  15  feet  deep  covered 

*  \V.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  Tell  el  Auiania,  1894. 


Fig.  21. — Ceiling  pattern 
from  behind  Medinet 
Hatii,  Twentieth  Dyn- 
asty. 


Fig.  22.  —  Ceihng  pattern 
similar  to  one  at  YA  Ber- 
sheh,  Twelfth  Dj'nasty. 


PALACE   OF   TELL    EL    AMARNA. 


21 


with  a  canopy  supported  on  beautiful  columns  and 
surrounded  by  a  sculptured  curb.  Behind  it  are  the 
remains  of  a  sakkieh,  or  water-wheel.  The  passages 
surrounding  it  open  into  cubicles,  and  here  at  last 
we  arrive  at  the  sleeping-chambers  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  They  measure  6x8  feet,  and  at  the 
end  of  each  is  a  sleeping-bench  2  feet  wide  by  6  feet 
long  and  30  inches  from  the  ground.  Another  bench 
at  the  side  forms 
a  table  or  seat. 

Many  of  the 
pavements  are 
painted.  The  lime- 
stone columns  are 
inlaid  with  coloured 
glazes,  the  edges  of 
which  have  been 
gilt.  Wall  painting 
was  largely  used. 
Above  the  ordinary 
dado,  painted  in 
red,  white,  and 
blue,  were  various  scenes.  One  is  thoroughly 
domestic.  Single  figures  placed  at  intervals  include 
a  servant  sweeping  the  floor  with  a  palm-brush 
(fig.  24),  and  a  cook  who  has  left  his  wig  behind, 
carrying  two  stands  with  bowls  containing  a  joint 
of  meat  and  some  cakes.  On  the  Jiarein  walls 
there  are  servants  with  cattle,  a  canal,  a  lake,  lotus- 
plants,  and  sailing-boats.  Elsewhere  was  a  family 
group  of  the  king  and  queen  with  their  atten- 
dants  and   children.     Religious    scenes   abound,  and 


Fig.  23. — Ceiling  pattern  from  tomb  of 
Aimadua,  Twentieth  Dynasty. 


22  ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 

the  inevitable  representations  of  bound  captives  also 
appear. 

The  finest  pavement,  which  was  almost  perfect,  was 
painted  on  a  carefully  prepared  surface  (fig.  25).  It 
represented  a  tank  of  fish  and  lotus  surrounded  by 
groups  of  plants  and  flowers.  Above  these  birds 
hovered,  and  calves  and  young  cattle  moved  about 
among  them.     A  black  border  round  the  tank  repre- 


9 


Fig.  24. — Wall-painting,  palace  of  Tell  el  Amarna.     W.  M.  F.  Fetrie. 

sented  the  Nile  mud,  while  the  plants  were  growing 
on  yellow  sand.  The  whole  design  was  most  charm- 
ing. The  pavement,  alas  !  was  wantonly  destroyed  in 
191 2  by  a  native  from  the  neighbouring  village. 

Some  houses  in  the  open  desert  were  also  excavated. 
They  belonged  to  wealthy  middle-class  officials,  and 
are  of  better  quality  than  the  houses  of  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty  of  Kahun.     They  vary  much  in  detail,  but 


HOUSES  OF  TELL  EL  AMARNA. 


23 


the  same  important  characteristics  can  be  observed  in 
all  (fig.  26). 

The  approach  to  the  house  (a)  was  often  up  a  flight 
of  shallow  steps,  usually  on  the  north,  never  on  the 
south,  and  led  to  a  room  or  possibly  an  open  porch. 
Entering  the  house   there  is    a  lobby  (y)  where  the 


Fig.  25. 


Part  of  painted  pavement,  palace  of  Tell  el  Amarna. 
W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


doorkeeper  probably  slept,  and  which  leads  into  the 
columned  loggia(L),  well  protected  from  the  sun.  There 
is  a  small  room  beyond  (o).  The  centre  of  the  house, 
and  apparently  the  family  sitting-room,  is  the  square 
hall  (fi).  It  often  has  a  bench  or  uiastaba  on  one  side. 
In  front  of  this  is  the  fire.  There  was  no  central 
hole  in  the  roof,  and  the  wide  door  may  have  afforded 
the  only  light,  but  it  must  be  remembered  in  consider- 


24 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND   MILITARY 


lug  Egyptian  architecture  that  in  that  land  of  sun- 
shine a  small  opening  will  afford  ample  li^ht  for  a 
large  chamber.  These  are  the  public  rooms.  The 
remainder  of  the  house  divides  into  four  parts,  the 
master's  room, and  women's  quarter;  the  men-servants' 
iquartcr  ;  store  rooms  ;  and  the  staircase  and  cup- 
boards. The  room 
marked  C  is  appar- 
ently the  master's 
bedroom.  D  and  E 
were  probably  used 
b}^  the  women  for 
living  and  cooking, 
and  they  never  lead 
outside  the  house. 

The  quarters  for  the 
men-servants  have  no 
communication  with 
the  women's  quarters 
except  inone  instance. 
There  is  a  large  hall 
for  their  use,  I,  and  a 
stone  tank.  J  and  K 
may  be  sleeping- 
rooms  for  the  married 
men.  The  staircase  (s)  is  sometimes  winding,  and 
cupboards  are  arranged  to  fill  in  the  spaces  around 
and  below  it.  The  houses  are  enclosed  in  an  outer 
wall.  It  was  in  a  public  building  near  by  that  the 
Tell  el  Amarna  cuneiform  tablets  were  discovered. 
These  tablets  bear  the  correspondence  between  Syria 
and  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  were  discovered  acciden- 


Fig.  26.  —  Plan  of  private  house,  Tell 
el  Amarna.     W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


HOUSES   UNDER    THE    NEW    KINGDOM.  25 

tally  b\'  fcllahin  in  search  of  sebakh.  The  cuneiform 
scribe  employed  for  the  correspondence  apparentl}' 
lived  close  at  hand. 

The  town  of  Tell  el  Amarna  is  now  in  process  of 
being  excavated.*  At  present  two  streets,  roughly  at 
right  angles  with  each  other,  have  been  laid  bare. 
These  contained  official  houses  built  for  the  great 
court  officials,  the  high  priest,  the  chief  architect,  and 
others.  Some  of  the  walls  still  remain  standing  to  a 
considerable  height.  The  houses  are  not  so  important 
as  the  Palace  of  Ai,  nor  are  the  gardens  so  large,  but 
they  agree  with  the  plans  of  smaller  houses  pictured 
in  the  tombs  of  the  officials.  The  arrangement  of 
the  garden,  the  position  of  the  house,  and  of  the 
offices  and  stables  are  the  same.  The  pool  has  not 
yet  been  found,  but  the  well,  with  part  of  a  large 
sJiadiif  beside  it  is  there,  the  garden  beds,  the  summer- 
house  surrounded  by  trees,  the  vegetable  and  herb 
gardens  can  be  clearly  traced,  while  in  the  stables  the 
discarded  harness  was  still  lying.  The  house  has 
the  portico,  the  entrance  hall,  and  two  other  halls,  the 
stairs  to  the  roof,  the  sleeping-chamber,  or  sometimes 
two,  the  bathroom,  and  the  entrance  door  itself,  so 
placed  at  right  angles  to  the  main  passage,  that 
visitors  approaching  could  not  command  a  view 
throuoh  the  house — an  arrancrement  we  also  observe 
in  the  houses  of  the  middle  classes  just  described. 

Thus  of  the  domestic  buildings  of  the  second 
Theban  period  we  have  a  very  remarkable  amount  of 
remains.      The   lamps   made   in    the  form   of  houses, 

*  L.   Borchardt,  Miitheilungen  Orient.   GesdUchaft.,  Nos.  34,    1907, 
and  50,  Oct.    1912. 


26 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


r  ii  la  II  II  nrrr 


^3 


which  are  found  in  such  large  numbers  in  the  Fa\um, 
date   only   from    Ptolemaic  and  Roman   times  ;  they 

serve  to  show  that 
the  same  methods  of 
building  prevailed 
then  as  under  the 
Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  Dyn- 
asties. 

As  regards  the 
domestic  architec- 
ture of  the  Old 
Kingdom,  the  actual 
remains  are  few. 
Vestiges  of  the 
poorer  houses  of  the 
Old  Kingdom  were 
found  at  Koptos. 
There  the  brick 
flooring  was  raised 
above  the  damp  of 
the  basal  clay,  by 
being  laid  on  rows  of 
inverted  cylindrical 
pots  of  rough  ware. 
There  is  evidence 
that  previous  to  the 
Fourth  Dynasty  ex- 
ten  si  ve  use  was 
made  of  wood.  The  flooring  planks  of  a  royal  tomb 
of  the  First  Dynasty  at  Abydos  were  placed  on 
17-inch   beams,   and    the    ceilings    also    of    some    of 


Fig.  27. — Door  of  a  house  of  the  Old 
Kingdom,  from  the  wall  of  a  tomb  of 
the  Sixth  Dynast)-. 


MODELS   OF    HOUSES. 


27 


the  royal  tombs  were  supported  on  great  wooden 
beams  nearly  20  feet  in  length.  The  stone  roofing 
in  several  mastabas  at  Saqqara  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty 
is  carved  to  imitate  a  roofing  of  beams. 

To  judge  from  the  wall  scenes,  a  large  use  seems  to 
have  been  made  of  coloured  matting  laced  to  a  frame- 
work, both  for  ceilings  and  inner  walls  ;  good  examples 
of  the  latter  use  may  be  seen  represented  in  the  tomb 
of  Ptahhotep.     Roofs  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  at  Beni 


Fig.  28. 


■Fafade  of  a  Fourth  Dynasty  house,  from  the  sarcophagus 
of  Khiifii  Poskhu. 


Hasan  are  painted  to  represent  ceiling  beams  with 
matting  stretched  between.  The  stelae,  tombs,  and 
coffins  of  the  Old  Kingdom  occasionally  furnish  us 
with  drawings  that  show  us  the  doorways  of  the 
period  (fig.  27),  and  a  sarcophagus  of  the  Fourth 
Dynasty,  that  of  Khufu-Poskhu,  is  carved  to  resemble 
a  house  (fig.  28).  From  humbler  graves  of  the  Old 
Kingdom  come  a  number  of  models  of  houses  in 
rough  pottery.*  There  is  a  great  variety,  ranging 
from  mere  huts  of  one  or  two  rooms  to  the  house  of 


*  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  Rifeh,  1907. 


28  ARCEIITECTURE— CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 

five  rooms  enclosed  in  a  courtyard  with  high  crenel- 
lated walls.  The  columned  portico  in  front  is  almost 
invariable.  The  outside  staircase  to  the  roof  is  rarely 
absent,  sometimes  straight,  sometimes  winding  ;  there 
are  the  miilkafs,  the  barred  windows,  the  water  tanks, 
and  houses  of  two  stories  ;  on  the  roof  are  the  small 
chambers,  sometimes  elaborated  with  colonnades; 
all  as  we  have  seen  them  under  the  Theban 
dynasties,  and  even  the  separate  chambers,  apart  from 
the  main  building  but  within  the  enclosure,  begin  to 
appear. 

2. FORTRESSES. 

The  greater  number  of  the  towns,  and  even  most 
of  the  larger  villages,  were  walled.  On  the  carvings 
of  the  archaic  period  we  find  them  represented  as 
oval  or  round  enclosures,  strongly  fortified.  After 
the  union  of  the  whole  country  under  the  dynastic 
sovereigns  this  jealous  guarding  of  individual  towns 
was  still  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  geographical 
characteristics  and  political  constitution  of  the  country. 
Against  the  Bedouin  it  was  necessary  to  block  the 
gorges  leading  to  the  desert ;  while  against  their  king 
and  their  neighbours  the  great  feudal  lords  fortified 
the  towns  in  which  they  dwelt  and  those  villages  on 
their  domains  that  commanded  the  mountain  passes 
or  the  easily  navigable  parts  of  the  river. 

The  earliest  fortresses  are  those  of  Abydos,  El  Kab, 
and  Semneh.  Abydos  was  situated  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a  road  leading  to  the  oases,  and  contained 
the  celebrated  sanctuary  of  Osiris.  The  renown  of 
this  temple  attracted  pilgrims,  while  the  situation  of 


FORTRESSES.  29 

the  town  brought  merchandise  thither.  The  pros- 
perit}^  and  wealth  that  accrued  from  these  two  sources 
exposed  the  city  to  incursions  of  Libyans,  and  it 
possessed  two  strongholds.  The  older  of  the  two 
formed  practically  the  core  of  the  mound  called 
locally  the  Koni  cs  Sultan  or  "  Mound  of  the  King." 
Until  recently  the  fort  was  remarkably  perfect,  but 
much  of  it  has  now  been  destro}'ed.  It  was  a 
parallelogram  of  crude  brick  4.10  feet  long  by  22^  feet 
broad.  The  greater  axis  was  from  north  to  south. 
The  principal  entrance  was  in  the  west  wall,  not  far 
from  the  north-west  corner  ;  and  there  were  two  of 
less  importance,  one  on  the  south  and  the  other  on 
the  east.  The  walls  on  the  east  side  were  from  24 
to  36  feet  high,  having  lost  some  of  their  original 
height,  and  they  were  about  6  feet  thick  at  the  top. 
They  are  not  built  in  uniform  courses,  but  as  at 
El  Kab  two  methods  of  building  are  employed,  which 
are  easily  distinguishable.  In  the  first  the  layers  of 
bricks  are  strictly  horizontal,  in  the  second  they  are 
slightly  concave  and  form  a  flattened  arch  of  which 
the  extrados  rests  on  the  ground.  These  two  methods 
are  regularly  alternated.  The  object  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  obscure  ;  it  is  said,  however,  that  it  takes  the 
weight  of  the  upper  courses  off  the  lower  ones,  and 
also  that  this  construction  is  specially  fitted  to  with- 
stand earthquake  shocks.  Whatever  the  date  of  the 
walls,  the  fortress  is  extremely  ancient,  for  as  early 
as  the  Fifth  Dynasty  the  noble  families  of  Ab}'dos 
invaded  the  enclosure,  filling  it  with  their  tombs  to 
the  extent  of  depriving  it  of  all  strategic  value.  A 
second  fortress,  now  called   the  Sim  net  cz  Zebib,  was 


30  ARCHITECTURE  — CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 

built  some  hundred  metres  to  the  south-east  about 
the  time  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  and  replaced  the 
stronghold  of  Kom  es  Sultan,  but  under  the  Rames- 
sides  it  narrowly  escaped  sharing  its  fate.  It  was 
only  the  sudden  decline  of  the  town  that  saved  it 
from  being  equally  choked  with  tombs  and  funerary 
stela;. 

The  Egyptians  in  early  times  possessed  no  engines 


Fig.  29. — Plan  of  second  fortress  of  Abydos,  Eleventh  or  Twelfth 
Dynasty. 

capable  of  breaking  down  massive  walls.  They  had 
only  three  methods  of  forcing  a  stronghold  ;  by 
escalade,  sapping,  or  forcing  the  gates.  The  plan 
adopted  by  their  engineers  in  building  the  second 
fort  is  admirably  adapted  for  protection  against  these 
three  modes  of  attack  (fig.  29).  The  walls  are  long 
and  straight,  without  towers  or  projections  of  any 
kind  ;  they  measure  430  feet  in  length  on  the  east 
and  west  sides,  and  255  feet  on  the  north  and  south. 
The  foundations  rest  directly  on   the   sand,  and  no- 


THE    SECOND    FORTRESS   OF    ABVDOS. 


31 


where  are  they  more  than  a  foot  below  the  surface. 
The  wall  (fig.  30)  is  of  crude  brick  laid  in  horizontal 
courses.     It  has  a  slight  batter,  is  solid  without  loop- 
holes   of    any    sort,    and    is 
panelled  outside  with  vertical 
angulatcd  grooves  similar  to 
those     on    buildings    of    the 
Thinite  period  and  Old  King- 
dom.    The  present  height  is 
36  feet,  and  when   perfect   it 
cannot  have  exceeded  40  feet, 
a  height  which  would  amply 


suffice  to  safeguard  the  garri- 


Fig.  30. — Walls  of  second  fort 
at  Abydos,  restored. 


son  against  any  escalade  by 
portable  ladders.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  is  about  20  feet  at  the  base,  and 
about  16  feet  at  the  top.  The  upper  part  is  entirely 
destroyed,  but  figured  representations  (fig.  31)  show 
that  such  walls  were  sometimes  left  plain  and  some- 
times crowned 
with  a  continuous 
cornice  and  a  nar- 
row,low,crenellated 
parapet,  the  mer- 
lons of  which  were 
generally  rounded, 
rarely  square.  The 
path  round  the 
ramparts,  although  narrowed  by  the  thickness  of  the 
parapet,  cannot  have  been  less  than  13  or  15  feet 
wide.  It  extended  without  a  break  round  the  four 
sides,  and  was  reached  by  narrow  staircases  hidden 


of  fort,  from  wall-scene, 
Beni  Hasan,  Tweli'th  Dynasty. 


32 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND   MILITARY 


Fig.  32. — Plan  of  main  gate 
second  fortress  of  Abvdos, 


in  the  masonr)'  and  now  destroyed.  There  was  no 
foss,  but,  as  a  protection  against  sappers,  a  crenellated 
covering  wall  was  erected  some  10  feet  in  front  of 
the  main  wall.  This  second 
wall  was  about  16  feet  high. 
These  precautions  were  suffi- 
cient to  guard  against  sapping 
and  escalade,  but  the  gatew^a}'s 
remained  as  so  many  gaping 
breacbics  in  the  fortifications. 
They  formed  the  weak  point 
on  which  attack  and  defence 
alike  were  concentrated.  The  fortress  at  Abydos 
had  two  gateways,  the  main  one  situated  near  the 
east  end  of  the  north  front  (fig.  321.  A  narrow 
opening  (a),  closed  by  massive  wooden  doors,  marked 
the  place  in  the  covering  wall.  Behind  it  was  a 
small  place  d'annes  (b),  constructed  in  the  thickness 
of  the  main  wall,  and  behind  this  a  second  door  (c) 
as  narrow  as  the  first  one.  When 
the  foe  had  forced  this  door,  in  face 
of  the  besieged  posted  on  the  walls, 
who  would  rain  projectiles  on  him 
in  front  and  on  both  sides,  he  had 
)-et  further  perils  to  face.  He  had 
to  cross  an  oblong  court  (d)  hemmed 
in  between  the  walls,  and  two 
counter  forts  built  out  at  right 
angles.  Here,  completel}'  exposed  to  the  attacks  of 
the  defenders,  he  would  have  to  force  a  postern 
gate  (e),  placed  intentionally  in  the  most  inaccessible 
corner.     The    principle    on   which    these    gates    were 


-Plan  of 
south-east  gate, 
second  fortress 
of  Abvdos. 


WALLED   CITIES. 


33 


Fig.  34.— Plan  of 
gate,  fortress  of 
Kom  el  Ahmar. 


constructed  is  practically  the  same  everywhere,  but 
they  vary  slightly  according  to  the  wishes  of  the 
engineers.  At  the  south-east  gate  of  the  fortress  of 
Abydos  (fig.  33)  the  place  d amies 
between  the  two  walls  is  omitted, 
and  the  court  is  constructed  entirely 
in  the  thickness  of  the  main  wall. 
At  Kom  el  Ahmar,  opposite  El  Kab, 
the  block  of  brickwork  in  which  the 
door  is  cut  projects  boldly  (fig.  34). 
Various  posterns  disposed  at  irregular  intervals  facili- 
tated the  movements  of  the  garrison  and  enabled 
them  to  carry  out  a  variety  of  sorties. 

The    same    system    of   fortification    employed    for 

fortresses  was  also 
employed  for  the 
defence  of  towns. 
Everywhere,  at 
HeHopolis,  at  San, 
at  Sais,  and  at 
Thebes,  the  walls 
are  straight,  without 
towers  or  bastions  : 
they  form  either  a 
square  or  an  elon- 
gated parallelogram, 
without  foss  or  out- 
posts. The  thick- 
ness of  the  walls,  which  varies  from  35  to  70  feet, 
renders  such  precautions  unnecessary.  The  jambs 
and  h'ntels  of  the  gates,  or  at  any  rate  of  the  principal 
ones,  were  of  stone,  sculptured  with  historical  scenes 
3 


Fig.  35. 


-Plan  of  the  walled  citv  at  El  Kab. 


34 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


and  inscriptions,  as,  for  instance,  the  door  at  Ombos, 
which  ChampoUion  saw  yet  in  situ,  and  which  dated 
from  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III. 

The  oldest  and  best  preserved  walled  cit}'  in  Egypt, 
El  Kab,  dates  back  to  the  beginning  of  Egyptian 
history  ;  the  remains  of  the  oval  enclosure  of  pre- 
dynastic  days  can  still  be  traced  within  the  outer 
walls  of  the  later  fortress  (fig.  35).  This  great 
stronghold  was  partially  washed  away  by  the  Nile 
some     years     ago,     but    at    the    beginning    of    the 

nineteenth  century  it 
formed  an  irregular 
quadrilateral  enclo- 
sure measuring  2,100 
feet  in  length  by 
about  one-sixth  less 
in    breadth.      The 


south  front  is  con- 
structed on  the  same 
principle  as   Kom   es 


Fig.  36. — Plan  of  walled  city  at  Kom 
Ombo. 


Sultan,sections  of  horizontal  layers  of  brick  alternating 
with  others  where  they  are  concave.  On  the  north 
and  west  the  layers  undulate  regularly  without  a  break 
from  end  to  end  of  the  walls.  The  walls  are  38  feet 
thick,  and  average  30  feet  in  height.  Stairways 
constructed  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  also 
spacious  ramps,  lead  to  the  top.  The  enclosure 
contained  a  considerable  population,  and  within  the 
wall  on  the  north  side  is  a  cemetery  of  the  earliest 
type  of  graves.  The  temples  were  grouped  together 
in  a  square  enclosure,  concentric  with  the  outer  wall, 
and  this  second  enclosure  served  as  a  keep  where  the 


FORTIFIED   HEIGHTS. 


35 


i^arrison  could  still  hold  out  long  after  the  rest  of  the 
camp  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

The  rectangular  plan,  though  excellent  in  flat 
country,  was  not  always  adapted  for  hilly  country. 
When  the  site  to  be  fortified  was  on  a  height,  the 
Egyptian  engineers  understood  well  how  to  adapt  the 
line  of  defence  to  the  slope  of  the  ground.  At  Kom 
Ombo  (fig.  36)  the  walls  exactly  follow  the  outline  of 
the  isolated  mound  on  which  the  town  is  perched. 
Their  eastern  front  is 
broken  by  irregular  pro- 
jections that  roughly 
suggest  the  modern 
bastion.  At  Kummeh 
and  Semneh  in  Nubia, 
where  the  Nile  emerges 
from  the  rocks  of  the 
second  cataract,  the  ar- 
rangements  are  still 
more  skilful,  and  show 
real    genius.      Senusert 

(Usertesen)  III.  had  there  fixed  the  Egyptian  frontier: 
the  fortresses  he  constructed  were  intended  to  bar 
the  waterway  against  the  vessels  of  the  negroes  of 
the  south. 

At  Kummeh,  on  the  right  bank,  the  position  is 
one  of  great  natural  strength  (fig.  ^y).  Upon  the 
rocky,  precipitous  hill  an  irregular  square  was 
enclosed  measuring  about  200  feet  each  way.  Two 
long  salients  or  elongated  bastions  were  constructed, 
one  on  the  north  to  command  the  road  leading  to  the 
gate  of  the  fortress,  and  the  other  on   the  south   to 


-Plan  of  fortress  of 
Kummeh. 


36 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


»§ 


guard  the  course  of  the  river.  The  covering  wall  is 
13  feet  in  front  of  the  main  wall,  and  follows  its 
lines  except  at  two  points,  the  north-west  and  south- 
east angles,  where  it  has  two  bastion-like  projections. 
On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  at  Semneh  the 
position  is  not  so  favourable.  The  east  side  is  pro- 
tected by  a  sheer  cliff  that  descends  perpendicularly 
to  the  river,  but  the  other  sides    are   only  too  easy 

of  access  (fig.  38).  On 
the  top  of  this  cliff  a 
wall  about  50  feet 
high  was  built,  but 
on  the  other  side 
towards  the  plain  the 
wall  was  over  80  feet 
in  height,  and  bristled 
with  counterforts  (A, 
B),  50  feet  long  by 
30  feet  wide  at  the 
base,  and  13  feet  at 
the  top.  These  were 
according   to    the    re- 


Fig.  38. 


Plan  of  fortress  of  Semneh. 


placed  at  irregular  interval 
quirements  of  the  defences  ;  they  had  no  parapets, 
and  took  the  place  of  towers.  They  added  much 
to  the  security  of  the  fortress  as  they  commanded 
the  access  to  the  top  of  the  walls,  and  enabled 
the  besieged  to  direct  a  flank  attack  against  the 
enemy  if  any  attempt  was  made  to  force  the  main 
walls.  The  interval  between  these  counterforts  is 
calculated  so  that  the  archers  could  sweep  the  whole 
intervening  space  with  their  arrows.  Both  curtains 
and    salients    are    in   crude   brick,  with  large   beams 


SEMNEH. 


37 


built  horizontally  into  the  mass.  The  outer  face  is 
in  two  sections,  the  lower  one  almost  vertical,  the 
upper  one  sloping  at  an  angle  of  about  70  degrees, 
an  arrangement  which  made  it  extremely  difficult  if 
not  impossible  to 
scale  the  walls.  The 
whole  of  the  en- 
closure inside  the 
walls  was  filled  in 
after  the  fashion  of 
a   terre-plein   almost  '^'^- 35- S'^/^-ffJ^  platform  at  .,  b. 

to   the  level   of  the 

ramparts  (fig.  39).  Externally  the  covering  wall  of 
dry  stone  was  separated  from  the  main  building  by 
a  foss  100  to  130  feet  wide  ;  it  followed  the  general 
line  of  the  main  wall  with  considerable  accuracy,  and 
varied  from  5  to   10  feet  in  height  according  to  the 

situation.  On  the  north 
it  was  cut  by  the  wind- 
ing pathway  leading  to 
the  plain.  These  arrange- 
ments, clever  as  they  were, 
could  not  save  Semneh 
from  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy  ;  a  large 
gap  on  the  south  side 
between  the  two  salients 


Fig.  40. — Syrian  fort. 


nearest    the   river    marks    the    spot    where    the    final 
assault  was  carried  by  the  enemy. 

The  great  Asiatic  wars  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty 
which  secured  for  the  victorious  Pharaohs  their 
eastern  empire  taught    the  Egyptians   new  methods 


38 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


Fig.  41.— The  town  walls  of  Dapur. 


of    fortification.      The    nomads    of    southern     Syria 

erected  small  forts  to  which  they  could  retreat  when 

threatened   with  invasion   (fig.  40).      The  Canaanite 

and  Hittite  cities, 
such  as  Ascalon, 
Dapur,  and  Merom, 
were  surrounded  by 
massive  walls,  gene- 
rally built  of  stone, 
and  flanked  by 
towers  (fig.  41). 
Cities  built  on  plains, 
such  as  Qodshu 
(Kadesh),  were  en- 
trenched   behind    a 

double  foss  filled  with  water  (fig.  42).     The  Pharaohs 

introduced  into   the  Nile   valley  some  of  these  new 

types,    whose    value    they    had    learnt    during    their 

campaign.     From 

the  beginning  of  the 

Nineteenth  Dynasty, 

the   eastern    frontier 

of    the     Delta,    the 

weakest      point      of 

Egyptian     defences, 

was  protected  by  a 

series    of     block - 

houses     similar     to 

those     of     Canaan. 

Not  content  with  appropriating  the  actual  thing,  the 

Egyptians   also   adopted   the  name  and  called  these 

v/atch-towers    by    the    Semitic     name    of    luagadilfc 


Fig.  42. 


-City  of  Kadesh,  from  bas-reliet, 
Ramesseum. 


MEDINET    HABO. 


39 


(migdols).  Brick  did  not  appear  to  be  sufficiently 
strong  for  towns  exposed  to  incursions  of  Asiatics, 
and  the  walls  of  Heliopolis  and  Memphis  were  now- 
cased  in  stone.  Nothing  now  re- 
mains of  these  new  fortifications, 
and  we  should  be  forced  to  turn 
to  pictured  representations  to 
learn  the  appearance  of  these 
migdols,  were  it  not  that,  owing 
to  royal  caprice,  we  possess  a 
model  in  a  place  where  we  Fig.  43.— Plan  of  the 
should   least  expect  to   find   it—       Pf^;i'ion  of  Medinet 

^  Habu. 

in  the  Theban  necropolis. 

When  Rameses  III.  planned  his  funerary  temple 
(figs.  43,  44)  he  decided  to  commemorate  his  Syrian 
victories  by  giving  it  a  military  appearance.  On  the 
eastern    side    is     a    battlcmented    covering    wall    of 


^^^yrr^^-rrro^ 


Fig.  44. — Elevation  of  pavilion,  Medinet  Habi 


stone,  which  averages  13  feet  in  height.  In  the 
middle  of  the  wall  is  the  gateway,  protected  by  a 
huge  quadrangular  bastion.  This  is  6  feet  8  inches 
broad,    flanked    by    two    small    oblong    guardrooms, 


40  ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 

the  roofs  of  which  are  about  3  feet  higher  than 
the  coping  of  the  ramparts.  Having  entered  this 
gateway,  we  are  actually  face  to  face  with  a  migdol. 
Two  blocks  of  masonry,  themselves  the  basement  of 
towers,  enclose  a  court  which  is  narrowed  by  succes- 
sive projections  of  the  masonry.  These  blocks  are 
finally  united  by  a  building  two  stories  high,  which 
forms  a  lofty  gateway.  The  eastern  faces  of  the 
towers  are  on  a  sloping  substructure  about  16  feet 
high.  This  was  built  with  two  objects  in  view,  first 
to  increase  the  strength  of  the  wall  at  a  point  where 
it  was  possible  to  sap  it,  and  also  because  projectiles 
flung  from  the  battlements  would  rebound  against  the 
slope  and  keep  assailants  at  a  distance.  The  total 
height  is  about  70  feet,  and  the  breadth  in  front 
rather  more  than  80  feet.  The  buildings  situated 
behind  and  at  the  sides  of  the  gateway  were  destroyed 
in  ancient  times.  The  details  of  the  decoration  are 
adapted  to  the  character — half  religious,  half  triumphal 
— of  the  building.  It  is,  however,  improbable  that 
real  fortresses  were  decorated  with  brackets  and  bas- 
reliefs  similar  to  those  we  see  here  on  the  walls  of  the 
guard-rooms.  Such  as  it  is,  the  so-called  pavilion  of 
Medinet  Habu  is  a  unique  example  of  the  perfection 
to  which  the  Pharaohs  had  brought  military  archi- 
tecture. 

After  the  time  of  Rameses  HI.  we  are  left  almost 
entirely  without  examples  of  fortified  buildings. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  B.C.  the 
high  priests  of  Amen  repaired  the  walls  of  Thebes, 
of  Gebeleyn,  and  of  El  Hibeh.  The  territorial 
division  of  the  country  which  took  place  under  the 


BRIDGES. 


41 


successors  of  Shcshonk  compelled  the  princes  of  the 
nomes  to  increase  the  number  of  their  strongholds. 
The  campaign  of  Piankhi  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile 
was  a  series  of  successful  sieges,  but  there  is  nothing 
to  lead  us  to  suppose  that  the  art  of  fortification  had 
made  any  sensible  progress  at  that  time.  When  the 
Greek  Pharaohs  took  the  place  of  the  native  rulers 
they  probably  found  fortifications  similar  to  those 
constructed  by  the  engineers  of  the  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  Dynasties. 


3. PUBLIC    WORKS. 

In  such  a  country  as  Egypt  a  permanent  system  of 
roads  is  unnecessary  ;  the  Nile  is  the  natural  highway 
for  commerce,  and  the  top  of  the 
embankments  and  the  footpaths 
that  intersect  the  fields  are  amply 
sufficient  for  foot-passengers,  for 
cattle,  and  for  the  transport  of 
goods  from  village  to  village. 
Ferry-boats  for  crossing  the  river, 
fords  wherever  the  canals  were 
not  too  deep,  and  permanent 
causeways  placed  across  water 
furrows,  completed  the  system,  p^g  ^^ 
Bridges  were  rare  ;  up  to  the 
present  time  we  only  know  of 
one  in  ancient  Egypt  ;  and  whether  that  one  was 
long  or  short,  built  of  wood  or  of  stone,  supported  on 
arches  or  formed  of  a  single  span,  we  know  nothing. 
Under  the  walls  of  Zaru  it  crossed  the  canal  that 
separated  the  eastern  frontiers  of  the  Delta  from  the 


Canal  and 
bridge  of  Zaru,  from 
bas-relief,  Karnak. 


42 


ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND    MILITARY. 


Fig.  46. — Cellar,  with  amphorae. 


desert  regions  of  Arabia  Petraea.  On  the  Asiatic 
side  the  bridge  was  protected  by  a  fort  (fig.  45).  Thus 
the  maintenance  of  means  of  communication,  which  is 
so  costly  an  item  among  modern  nations,  played  a 
very-small  part  in  the  annual  budget  of  the  Pharaohs  ; 

they  were  responsible  for 
only  three  important  ser- 
vices, that  of  storing,  of 
irrigation,  and  of  mining 
and  quarrying. 

Taxes  were  collected 
in  kind,  and  Government 
officials  were  paid  on  the 
same  system.  Monthly  distributions  were  made  to 
the  workpeople  of  corn,  oil,  and  wine,  while  from  end 
to  end  of  the  social  scale,  each  functionary,  in  return 
for  his  services,  received  cattle,  stuffs,  manufactured 
goods,  and  certain  quantities  of  copper  or  precious 
metals.  It  was,  therefore, 
necessary  that  the  fiscal 
authorities  should  have 
command  of  vast  store- 
houses for  the  reception 
of  the  taxes  demanded  of 
the  people.  Each  class 
of  goods  had  its  separate 
quarter  walled  in,  and  pro- 
tected by  vigilant  guards.  There  were  large  stables 
for  the  cattle  ;  cellars  where  the  amphorae  v/ere  piled 
in  regular  layers  or  hung  in  rows  on  the  walls  (fig.  46), 
each  with  the  date  of  the  vintage  written  on  the  side  ; 
and     oven-shaped    granaries    where    the    grain    was 


Fig.  47. — Granary. 


STOREHOUSES. 


43 


poured  in  through  a  shuttered  opening  in  the  roof 
(fig.  47),  and  taken  out  through  a  trap  near  the 
ground. 

At  Thiiku  (identified  with  Pithom  by  M.  Naville) 
the  store  -  chambers  are 
rectangular  (a,  a.  fig.  48),  of 
various  sizes,  and  have  no 
direct  communication  with 
each  other  :  the  wheat  w^as 
both  put  in  and  taken  out 
at  the  top.  At  the  Rames- 
seum  the  thousands  of 
ostraca  and  of  jar-stoppers 
scattered  over  the  place 
prove  that  the  ruinous 
brick     buildings     immedi-  • 

ately  behind  the  temple  contained  the  stores  of  wine 
belonging  to  the  god.  These  chambers  are  long 
vaulted  passages  placed  closely  side  by  side,  and 
were  originally  surmounted  by  a  platform   (fig.  49). 


Fig.  48.— Plan  of  Pithom. 


Fig.  49.  —  Store-chambers  of  the  Ramesseum. 


Phil«,  Ombos,  Daphnae,  and  most  of  the  frontier 
towns  of  the  Delta  possessed  store-houses  of  this  kind, 
and  many  more  will  be  discovered  when  a  systematic 
search  is  made  for  them. 


44 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY'. 


The  system  of  irrigation  has  not  greatly  changed 
during  the  course  of  centuries.  Some  new  canals 
have  been  cut,  others  have  slightly  changed  their 
course,  while  a  larger  number  have  been  silted  up, 
owing  to  the   negligence  of  the    proprietor,  but   the 

general  scheme  and 
methods  of  irriga- 
tion are  the  same. 
They  do  not  de- 
mand much  skilled 
labour.  Wherever 
I  have  been  able 
to  examine  the 
ancient  canals,  I 
ha\e  found  no  trace 
of  masonry,  either 
at  the  commence- 
ment or  even  at 
the  weak  points  of 
their  course.  They 
are  mere  ditches 
from  20  to  70  feet 
wide  ;  the  earth 
flung  out  during 
the  work  of  exca- 
vating, and  thrown 
to  right  and  left  formed  irregular  sloping  banks  from 
7  to  14  feet  high.  An  early  bas-relief,  now  at  Oxford, 
shows  one  of  the  kings  of  the  archaic  period,  in  full 
state,  pick  in  hand,  breaking  the  sod  for  a  new  canal 
or  some  other  public  work,  while  an  attendant  holds 
a  basket  (fig.  50). 


upper  Egypt,  attended  by  fan-bearers, 
inaugurating  some  public  work.  Part 
of  carved  mace  head,  Oxford. 


IRRIGATION.  45 

The    ancient    canals    were    generally   straight,   but 
occasionally  some   slight   irregularity   in   the  ground 
would  turn  them  out  of  their  course,  and  they  would 
form  immense  curves.     The  dykes  that  traverse  the 
plain,  intersect  the  canals  at  intervals  and  divide  the 
valley    into    basins,  which    retain    the    water    during 
the    months   of  the    inundation.       These   dykes    are 
generally  of  earth,  though  sometimes  of  baked  brick, 
as  in  the  province  of  Girgeh.     The  embankment  at 
Kosheish   is   very   exceptional  ;    it   is   constructed   of 
worked  stone,  and  was  made  by  Menes,  the  first  king 
of  the  First  Dynasty,  for  the  benefit  of  his  new  city 
of   Memphis.       This    system    of    dykes    began    near 
Silsilis,  and  extended  to  the  sea,  keeping  close  to  the 
Nile   throughout    its    course,   except   at    Beni    Suef, 
where   it  threw  out  an  arm  in  the  direction   of  the 
Fayum.      It  crossed  the  rocky  barrier  of  the  Libyan 
mountains    near    Illahun    by   a  narrow  and    sinuous 
gorge,  which  possibly  was  artificially  deepened  and 
then  widened  into  a  fanlike  network  of  many  ramifi- 
cations.      The    inundation    retreated    after    having 
watered  the  province,  and  the  water  nearest  the  Nile 
returned   by   the   way  it   came,  while  the  remainder 
found  its  way  into  a  series  of  lakes,  the  largest   of 
which  is  known  to-day  as  the  Birket  el  Karun.     If 
we  are  to  believe   Herodotus,  the  matter  was  by  no 
means  so  simple.     King  Moeris  desired  to  establish  a 
reservoir    in    the    Fayum    to    regulate    the  uncertain 
supply  of  water  from  the  inundation,  which  was  called 
after  him   Lake  Moeris.     Did  the   inundation   prove 
insufficient,  the  water  in  the  lake  could  be  let  loose 
to  the  required  extent  and  maintain  the  flood  at  the 


4-6  ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL    AND    MILITARY. 

height  required  for  middle  Egypt  and  the  western 
Delta.  Another  year,  if  the  flood  proved  too  great, 
Moeris  could  absorb  the  overplus  and  retain  it  till  the 
flood  subsided.  Two  pyramids  crowned  with  colossal 
figures,  one  representing  the  king  who  constructed 
the  lake  and  the  other  his  wife,  were  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  lake.  So  says  Herodotus,  and  he  has 
puzzled  engineers  and  geographers.  How  was  it 
possible  in  the  Fayum  to  find  a  site  for  a  piece  of 
water  not  less  than  90  miles  in  circumference  ?  The 
best  accredited  theory  of  our  day  was  that  of  Linant, 
that  it  was  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Libyan 
mountains  between  Illahun  and  Medinet  el  Fayum  ; 
but  recent  excavations  have  proved  that  the  supposed 
embankments  are  modern,  and  probably  do  not  date 
back  more  than  200  years.  If  Herodotus  ever  visited 
the  Fayum  it  must  have  been  in  the  summer,  when 
the  whole  district  has  the  appearance  of  a  huge  lake. 
What  he  mistook  for  the  borders  of  the  lake  were  the 
embankments  that  divide  the  basins  and  afford  com- 
munication between  the  various  towns.  IMajor  Brown 
has  lately  shown  that  the  nucleus  of  "  Lake  Moeris  " 
was  the  Birket  el  Karun.  It  was  known  to  the 
Egyptians  as  Jlh'ri,  the  Lake  ;  from  this  the  Greeks 
derived  their  Moi'n's,  a  name  extended  also  to  the 
inundation  of  the  Fayum. 

I  do  not  believe  in  the  existence  of  an  artificial 
lake.  The  only  works  of  that  class  attempted  by  the 
Egyptians  are  less  pretentious  ;  these  are  the  stone 
barriers  constructed  at  the  mouth  of  the  ravines 
that  descend  from  the  mountains  into  the  plain.  One 
of  the  most  important  was  observed   in    1855  by  Dr. 


STORAGE   OF   WATER. 


47 


Schweinfurth,  about  six  miles  and  a  half  to  the  south- 
west of  the  baths  of  Helwan,  at  the  entrance  of  Wady 
Gerraweh  (fig.  51).  It  answered  two  purposes— it 
stored  up  water  for  the 
workmen  engaged  in  the 
neighbouring  alabaster 
quarries,  and  it  broke  the 
power  of  the  torrents  that 
rush  down  from  the  desert 
after  the  winter  rains.  The 
ravine  measures  about  240 
feet  in  width,  and  the  sides 
40  to  50  feet  in  height.  The 
dam  was  constructed  of  three 
successive  layers  making  a 
total  thickness  of  143  feet. 
There  was  first  a  layer  of 
clay  and  rubbish  from  the 
hillside  (a),  then  a  piled-up  mass  of  large  blocks  of 
limestone,  and  finally  a  facing  wall  of  worked  stones 
backed  the  whole  on  the  east  side  (b).  Each  layer  of 
stone  was  narrower  than  the  one  below  it,  and  the 

whole  dam  formed  a  sort  of 
immense  staircase.  Thirty- 
two  of  these  steps  still 
exist  out  of  the  original 
thirty-five,  and  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  barrage  is  still  standing  at  the  two 
ends,  though  the  centre  has  been  swept  away  by  the 
torrent  (fig.  52).  A  similar  barrier  transformed  the 
lower  part  of  Wady  Genneh  into  a  small  lake  whence 
the  miners  of  Sinai  procured  their  water  supply. 


51.— Dyke  at  Wady 
Gerraweh. 


Fig.  52.— Section  of  Dyke  at 
Wady  Gerraweh. 


48  ARCHITECTURE — CIVIL   AND   MILITARY. 

Most  of  the  localities  from  which  Egypt  obtained 
her  metals  and  valuable  stone  were  difficult  of  access, 
and  the  mines  would  have  proved  useless  had  not  the 
Egyptians  constructed  roads  and  rendered  life  more 
possible  for  those  who  laboured  there.  The  route  to 
the  quarries  of  Wady  Ilammamat  where  diorite  and 
grey  granite  were  obtained  was  provided  at  intervals 
with  cisterns  hewn  in  the  rock.  Some  meagre  springs 
ingeniously  husbanded  and  stored  in  these  cisterns 
made  it  possible  to  establish  whole  villages  at  the 
quarries  and  also  at  the  emerald  mines  on  the  borders 
of  the  Red  Sea.  Hundreds  of  voluntary  workers,  as 
well  as  slaves  and  condemned  criminals,  lived  there 
in  misery  under  the  command  of  a  dozen  taskmasters, 
and  under  the  brutal  control  of  mercenary  soldiers, 
either  Libyans  or  negroes.  The  slightest  revolution 
in  Egypt,  an  unsuccessful  war,  or  any  political  trouble 
would  for  a  time  put  an  end  to  this  unnatural  exist- 
ence ;  the  labourers  would  desert,  the  Bedouin  would 
harry  the  colony,  the  guards  in  charge  of  the  convicts 
would  return  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  the  work 
would  be  abandoned. 

The  choicest  materials  such  as  diorite,  basalt,  black 
granite,  porphyry,  green  or  yellow  breccia  were  only 
sparingly  used  for  architectural  purposes,  as  it  was 
necessary  to  organise  regular  expeditions  of  soldiers 
and  workmen  to  procure  them,  and  they  were  reserved 
almost  exclusively  for  sarcophagi  and  valuable  statues. 
The  quarries  of  limestone,  sandstone,  alabaster,  and 
red  granite  which  supplied  the  ordinary  material  for 
temples  and  funerary  monuments  were  found  in  the 
Nile  valley,  and  were  therefore  easily  obtained.    When 


QUARRIES. 


49 


the   vein   intended    to  be  worked  formed  one  of  the 
lower  strata  of  the  mountain,  tunnels  and  chambers 

were  excavated  often    to  ,.-   -    -^  .^ 

a    considerable    distance.        ^' 

Square  pillars  of  the  rock 

left  standing  at  intervals 

supported    the    roof,   and 

stela,^  carved  in  the  most 

conspicuous      places     re- 
corded   for    posterity  the 

names  of  the   kings   and 

engineers  whocommenced 

and  carried  on  the  work. 

Several  of  these  quarries 

when  exhausted  or  aban- 


Fig.  53. — Quarries  of  Silsilis. 


i'-W 


doned  were  turned  into  chapels;  the  Specs  Artemidos 
for    instance,  which    was    dedicated    by    Hatshepsut, 
Thotmes  III.,  and  Seti  I.  to  Pakhet,  the  local  goddes.s. 
4  ^ 


SP 


ARCHITECTURE— CIVIL   AND    MILITARY 


The  most  important  limestone  quarries  are  at  Turah 
and  Massarah,  almost  opposite  Memphis.  This  stone 
was  in  great  request  for  sculptors  and  architects,  and 
was  in  fact  one  of  the  finest  materials  employed  for 
statuary.  Strong  as  it  is,  it  lends  itself  marvellously 
to  the  most  delicate  requirements  of  the  chisel,  it 
hardens    by   exposure   and   soon   acquires  a    creamy 

colour  very  restful  to  the 
eye.  At  Silsilis  there  are 
vast  beds  of  sandstone, 
and  these  were  quarried 
in  the  open  (fig.  53). 
There  we  find  escarp- 
ments from  40  to  50  feet 
high  worked  from  top  to 
bottom  with  the  pick,  or 
sometimes  divided  into 
stages  to  which  access  is 
afforded  by  steps  scarcely 
wide  enough  for  a  man. 
The  walls  are  grooved 
with  parallel  lines,  some 
horizontal,  some  sloping 
from  left  to  right  or  from 
right  to  left  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  form  blunted 
chevrons,  enclosed  in  a  rectangular  frame  of  grooves 
an  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  and  9  or  10 
feet  in  length.  These  are  scars  left  by  the  scratching 
of  the  tools  of  the  ancient  workman,  and  show  the 
method  he  employed  to  obtain  his  blocks.  They  were 
sketched  out  on  the  rock  in  red  ink,  sometimes  in 
the  form  in  which  they  were  to  appear  in  the  projected 


Fig.  54. — Draught  of  Halhor  capital 
in  quarry  of  Gebel  Abu  Fedah. 


QUARRYING    AND   TRANSPORT   OF    STONE. 


51 


building.  The  members  of  the  Commissioii  d' Egyptc 
copied  the  diagrams  and  squared  designs  of  several 
capitals  in  the  quarries  of  Gebel  Abu  Fedah  (fig.  54). 
These  outlines  having  been  drawn,  the  vertical  incisions 
were  made  by  means  of  a  long  metal  chisel  driven  in 
perpendicularly  or  obliquely  by  powerful  blows  from 
a  mallet.  The  horizontal  detachments  were  effected 
solely  by  bronze  or  wooden  wedges  inserted  in  the 
direction  of  the  rock  strata.  The  first  working  of  the 
block  was  often  done  before  it  was  detached  from  the 
rock  ;  thus  at  Assiian  we  see  an  immense  length  of 
granite  which  is  probably  an  unfinished  obelisk,  and 


^^%'  55- — Bas-relief  from  one  of  the  stelae  of  Aahmes,  at  Turah, 
Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


at   Tehneh    there    are   drums    of   columns    only   half 
disengaged. 

Transport  \vas  effected  in  various  ways.  At  Assuan, 
at  Silsilis,  at  Gebel  Sheikh  Herida,  and  at  Gebel  Abu 
Fedah  the  quarries  are  literally  washed  by  the  w^aters  of 
the  Nile,  and  the  stone  was  merely  rolled  from  its  place 
on  to  the  barges.  At  Kasr  es  Said  and  at  Turah, 
localities  some  distance  from  the  river,  boats  were 
brought  to  the  foot  of  the  cliff  by  means  of  canals 
constructed  for  the  purpose.  Where  it  was  impossible 
to  arrange  for  transport  by  water,  the  stone  was  loaded 
upon  sledges  drawn  by  oxen  (fig.  55)  or  even  dragged 
by  gangs  of  workmen  with  the  help  of  rollers. 


CHAPTER    II. 

RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

As  the  earliest  dwellings  we  know  of  the  Egyptians 
were  made  of  wattle  and  daub,  so  were  the  temples  of 
the  primitive  period.  An  attempt  was  made  to  give 
them  some  dignity  of  appearance.  A  few  posts  in 
front  marked  off  a  small  enclosure,  on  either  side  of 
the  doorway  were  two  high  masts,  and  over  the  door 
protruded  four  curved  objects  ;  what  they  were  we 
cannot  identify  from  the  few  representations  that  are 
all  we  have  to  guide  us.  A  carving  of  the  time  of 
Menes,  first  king  of  United  Eg}'pt,  shows  a  small 
sanctuary  that  lacks  even  this  decoration,  but  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  palisade,  and  inside  the  enclosure 
are  the  masts  and  also  a  symbol  of  the  goddess  Neith, 
to  whom  doubtless  the  building  was  dedicated. 

This  primitive  method  of  temple  building  was  soon 
superseded.  The  Egyptians  early  acquired  the  art  of 
building  in  stone,  and  by  the  time  of  the  Pyramid 
builders  they  had  carried  it  to  the  highest  perfection. 
The  Pharaohs  desired  to  build  eternal  dwelling-places 
for  the  gods,  and  for  this  purpose  stone  appeared  to 
be  the  only  material  sufficiently  durable  to  withstand 
the  attacks  of  men  and  the  ravages  of  time. 

52 


STONE   BLOCKS.  53 

I. MATERIALS    AND    PRINCIPLES    OF    CONSTRUCTION. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  Egyptians  used 
only  large  blocks  for  thejr  buildings.  The  size  varied 
greatly  according  to  the'^purpose  for  which  they  were 
intended.  Architraves,  drums  of  columns,  lintels,  and 
door  jambs  were  sometimes  of  very  considerable 
dimensions.  The  largest  architraves  known,  those 
above  the  central  aisle  of  the  hypostyle  hall  at  Karnak, 
average  30  feet  in  length.  Each  one  represents  a 
solid  block  of  40  cubic  yards  and  weighs  about  65 
tons.  Generally,  however,  the  blocks  are  not  larger 
than  those  in  ordinary  use  among  ourselves.  They 
vary  from  3  to  4  feet  in  height,  from  3  to  8  feet 
in  length,  and  from  18  inches  to  6  feet  in  breadth. 

Some  temples  are  built  throughout  in  one  kind  of 
stone,  but  more  frequently  materials  of  v^arious  kinds 
and-  quality  are  associated,  although  in  unequal  pro- 
portions. Thus  the  main  buildings  of  the  temples  of 
"Sbydos  are  of  very  fine  limestone,  while  in  the  temple 
of  Seti  I.  the  columns,  arcKltTaVes,  jambs,  and  lintels, 
all  those  parts  where  limestone  might  not  be  suffi- 
ciently strong,  are  in  sandstone,  and  in  the  temple  of 
Rameses  II.  they  are  in  sandstone,  granite,  and 
alabaster.  Similar  combinations  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
temples  of  Karnak,  Luxor,  Tanis,  Deir  el  Bahari, 
Gizeh,  and  Memphis.  At  the  Ramesseum,  at  Karnak, 
and  in  the  Nubian  temples,  where  all  these  materials 
are  ^combined,  the  columns  rest  on  a  solid  foundation 
of  crude  brick.  The  stones  were  dressed  more  or  less 
carefully  according  to  the  position  they  were  to 
occupy.     When  the  walls  were  of  medium  thickness 


54  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

they  were  well  wrought  on  all  sides.  When  the  wall 
was  thick  the  core  consisted  of  blocks  roughed  out  as 
nearly  cubic  as  possible  and  piled  together,  while  the 
gaps  between  them  were  filled  in  with  chips,  pebbles, 
or  mortar.  The  casing  stones  were  carefully  wrought 
on  the  upp^r  and  lower  sides  as  well  as  on  the  face, 
while  at  the  back  they  were  roughed  with  the  pick  to 
hold  the  mortar.  The  largest  of  these  blocks  were 
used  for  the  lower  courses,  a  very  necessary  precaution, 
as  the  architects  of  the  Pharaonic  period  afforded 
almost  as  shallow  foundations  for  the  temples  as  they 
did  for  houses  and~ palaces.  At  Karnak  the  founda- 
tions of  the  walls,  columns,  and  obelisks  are  barely 
7  to  10  feet  in  depth  ;  at  Luxor,  on  the  side  close 
to  the  river,  the  walls  rest  on  a  gigantic  substructure 
of  three  courses  of  masonry,  each  of  them  about  2h 
feet  in  height.  At  the  Ramesseum  the  course  of 
dried  brick  which  supports  the  colonnade  does  not 
appear  to  measure  more  than  7  feet.  These 
depths  are  very  insignificant,  but  the  experience  of 
ages  has  proved  them  to  be  sufficient.  The  hard 
compact  humus  which  everywhere  forms  the  soil  of 
the  Nile  valley  is  so  contracted  by  the  annual  subsi- 
dence of  the  inundation  that  it  is  rendered  almost 
incompressible.  The  weight  of  the  masonry  gradually 
increased  as  the  building  progressed,  and  thus  the 
maximum  of  pressure  was  attained  and  a  solid  basis 
secured.  Wherever  I  have  bared  the  foundations  of 
the  walls,  I  can  testify  that  they  have  not  shifted. 
This  is  the  case  even  at  Karnak,  which  I  examined 
after  the  fall  of  the  columns  in  1899. 

It  was  customary  at  the  building  or  rebuilding  of 


FOUNDATIONS   AND   FOUNDATION    DEPOSITS.      55 

a  temple  to  place  deposits  under  the  foundations  con- 
sisting of  small  squares  of  the  building  materials  and 
models  o{  the  tools  employed.  Also  a  number  of 
amulets,  which  were  probably  intended  to  secure  by 
magic  the  safety  of  the  temple.  These  foundation 
deposits  are  generally  found  in  a  layer  of  clean  sand, 
and  marvellously  fresh  and  uninjured.  Many  of  the 
objects  are  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  royal 
founder  of  the  temple,  and  it  was  by  means  of  its 
intact  foundation  deposits  that  one  of  the  ruined 
temples  to  the  south  of  the  Ramesseum  was  identified 
as  that  of  Queen  Tausert  of  the  end  of  the  Nineteenth 
Dynasty,  although  all  its  walls  were  razed  to  the 
ground.  Among  the  glazed  objects  found  in  this 
deposit  were  scarabs,  plaques,  models  of  offerings, 
besides  many  beads.  The  metal  objects  include  adze, 
knife,  axehead,  hoes,  and  chisels,  made  in  thin  sheet 
copper.  There  were  also  jars  and  cups,  an  ebony 
cramp,  and  a  model  corn-grinder.  The  foundation 
deposits  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  temple  at  Deir  el 
Bahari  furnished  numerous  models  of  workmen's  tools, 
including  the  wooden  centrings  used  in  construct- 
ing brick  vaulting.  These  were  neatly  inscribed  in 
blue  ink  with  the  cartouche  of  the  foundress  Hat- 
shepsut.  Two  deposits  at  the  western  entrance  of  this 
temple  afford  evidence  of  a  ceremony  customary  at 
the  foundation  of  a  temple.*  An  animal  was  slain 
and  the  flesh  laid  on  a  floor  of  clean  sand  over  which 
the  blood  was  allowed  to  drip  ;  vessels  containing 
unguents  and  wine  were  smashed  and  their  contents, 

*  Earl   of  Carnarvon,  Five   Years    Exploration   at   Thebes,  Oxford 
University  Press,  1912. 


56  RELIGIOUS    ARCHITECTURE. 

together  with   grains   of  corn,   were   poured  into   the 
cache  in  addition  to  the  offering  of  flesh  and  blood. 

The  system  of  construction  employed  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians  in  many  points  resembles  that  of  the 
Greeks.  The  stones  are  often  placed  with  dry  joints, 
without  binding  of  any  sort,  the  masons  trusting  to 
their  weight  to  keep  them  in  position.  Sometimes 
they  are  held  together  by  metal  cramps  of  copper  or 
lead  or,  as  in  the  temple  of  Seti  at  Abydos,  by  dove- 
tails of  sycamore  wood,  marked  with  the  royal 
cartouche.  Elsewhere  they  are  bound  together  by 
mortar  laid  on  more  or  less  thickly.  The  specimens 
of  mortar  I  have  hitherto  collected  are  of  one  or  other 
of  three  kinds.  The  first  is  white  and  easily  reduced 
to  a  powder,  being  merely  lime,  the  second  is  grey 
and  rough  to  the  touch,  a  mixture  of  lime  and  sand, 
the  third  owes  its  reddish  appearance  to  pounded 
brick-dust  mixed  with  the  lime  and  sand.  The 
judicious  use  of  these  methods  enabled  the  Egyptians 
to  rival  the  Greeks  in  the  skilful  laying  of  regular 
courses  of  even  blocks  with  the  vertical  joints  sym- 
metrically alternated.  If  the  work  is  not  always 
equally  good  the  fault  must  be  attributed  to  the 
imperfect  mechanical  means  at  their  disposal. 

Outer  walls,  party  walls,  and  secondary  facades 
were  usually  perpendicular,  and  the  building  materials 
required  for  them  were  raised  by  a  huge  lifting  jack 
placed  on  the  top.  The  walls  of  pylons,  of  principal 
facades,  and  sometimes  even  of  secondary  facades 
were  built  with  a  batter  of  varying  slope.  Eor  their 
construction  inclined  planes  or  ramps  were  erected  and 
heightened  as  the  building  progressed.     Both  methods 


MASONRY.  57 

were  equally  dangerous.  However  carefully  the  blocks- 
were  protected  there  was  great  risk  of  damaging  the 
edges  and  corners  or  even  of  breaking  the  blocks  in 
pieces.  They  almost  always  required  some  re-work- 
ing, and  in  order  to  avoid  waste,  the  workman  would 
actually  insert  pieces  of  stone  in  places  that  had  been 
badly  chipped,  or  he  would  bevel  the  end,  making  the 
joint  sloping  instead  of  vertical.  If  a  stone  was  too 
short  or  not  high  enough,  the  difficulty  was  met  by 
inserting  a  supplementary  slab,  or  again  a  stone  that 
was  too  large  was  allowed  to  overlap  and  fill  a 
corresponding   gap  in  the  course   above   or  below  it 

(fig.   56).     These  expedients,  at  __»_^___ 

first    designed    to   remedy   acci-       ^ — U- 
dents, degenerated  intohabitu^lly     [ 


careless  ways  of  working.     The       I       [  <() 


in 


masons    who   had   inadvertently    yig.     56.— Masonry 
drawn  up  too  large  a  block  did       temple  of  Seti    I.    at 

,  ,  ,  .  .  Abydos. 

not    trouble    to   lower    it    agam, 

but  adjusted  it  by  one  of  the  expedients  just  men- 
tioned. The  architect  did  not  give  sufficient  attention 
to  superintending  the  working  or  the  laying  of  the 
blocks  and  would  allow  the  vertical  joints  to  come 
immediately  over  each  other  for  two  or  three  courses. 
When  utilising  materials  from  ruined  edifices  he 
would  not  trouble  to  work  them  into  shape  ;  round 
shafts  of  older  columns  were  thus  mixed  with  rect- 
angular blocks  in  the  walls  of  the  Ramesseum.  ^  -  ^ 
The  main  building  completed,  the  facing  was 
worked  smooth,  the  joints  were  re-worked  and 
washed  over  with  a  coating  of  cement  or  stucco, 
coloured  to  match  the  masonry,  which  concealed  the 


58 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig-  57- — Temple 
wall  with  cornice. 


imperfections  of  the  original  work.     The  walls  rarely 

end    abruptly,   they  are   bordered   by  a  torus    round 

which  a  sculptured  ribbon  is  entwined,  and  crowned 
either  with  the  splayed  cornice 
surmounted  by  a  flat  band  (fig.  57), 
or,  as  at  Semneh,  by  a  square 
cornice,  or,  as  at  Medinet  Habu, 
by  a  line  of  battlements.  Thus 
framed  they  have  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  huge  panels  without 
projections    and    almost    without 

openings.       Windows,    always   rare    in     Egypt,    are 

here    mere  air-holes,   intended    to   give  light   to   the 

staircases,  as  in  the  second 

pylon    of    Horemheb    at 

Karnak,  or  else  on  festival 

days  to  support  the  orna- 
mental woodwork.      The 

doorways    afforded    little 

relief  to  the   flat   surface 

of  the   building  (fig.   58) 

except    when    the    lintel 

was  surmounted  by  a  flat 

band   and  cornice.      The 

pavilion  at  Medinet  Habu 

is  the  solitary  exception, 

and    has     real    windows, 

but    it    was    constructed 

on  the  model  of  a  Syrian 


Fig.  58. — Niche  and  doorway  in 
temple  of  Seti  I.  at  Abydos. 


fortress  and  can  only  be  quoted  as  an  exception. 

The  floor  of  the  court  and  chambers  consisted  of 
rectangular  paving  stones  arranged  with  considerable 


VAULTING. 


59 


Fig.  59.  —  Pavement  of  the 
portico  of  Osiris  in  temple 
of  Seti  I.  at  Abydos. 


regularity  except  in  the  inter-columnar  spaces.  Here, 
hopeless  of  adapting  them  to  the  curved  line  of  the 
bases,  the  architects  fitted  in  fragments  of  stone 
without  order  or  method  (fig. 
59).  Vaulting,*  which  was 
customary  in  dwelling-houses, 
was  scarcely  ever  employed 
in  the  temples.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  found  at  Deir 
el  Bahaii,  and  in  the  seven 
parallel  sanctuaries  at  Abydos. 
Even  in  these  instances  it  is 
effected  by  corbelling.  The  corbel  is  formed  by 
three  or  four  horizontal  courses,  each  of  which  pro- 
jects beyond  the  preceding  one,  until  the  two  sides 
meet.      The    rough    curve    thus    obtained    is    then 

chiselled  into  the 
form  of  an  arch 
(fig.  60).  The  roof 
is  usually  formed 
of  large  stone  slabs 
placed  closely  to- 
gether ;  when  the 
space  between  the 
walls  was  not  too 
great,  a  single  row 
of  slabs  covered  it, 
but  when  this  was  not  possible  the  roof  supports 
had  to  be  placed  at  intervals  varying  in  number 
according  to  the  space  to  be  covered.     Architraves 

*  The  earliest  true  arch  known  in  Egypt  is  in  a  mastaba  at  Bet 
Khallaf  of  the  Second  or  Third  Dynasty. 


Fig.  60.  — Corbelled   arch    in    temple 
of  Seti  I.  at  Abydos. 


6o 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


resembling  immense  stone  beams  were  laid  across 
the  supports  and  formed  a  framework  on  which  the 
roofing  slabs  were  laid. 

There  were  two  types  of  these  supports,  the  pillar 
and''  the  column.  Some  of  these  are  monoliths. 
The  pillars  of  the  great  granite  temple  at  Gizeh 
measure  i6  feet  in  height  by  4^  feet  in  width,  and  the 
red  granite  columns  found  scattered  among  the  ruins 
of  Saqqara,  Bubastis,  Memphis,  and  Alexandria, 
range  from  20  to  26  feet  in  height  and 
are  all  cut  in  one  piece.  But  columns 
and  pillars  are  commonly  built  in 
courses,  which  are  often  irregular,  like 
those  of  the  walls  that  surround  them. 
The  great  columns  of  Luxor  are  not 
even  solid,  two-thirds  of  the  diameter 
are  filled  up  with  yellow  cement  which 
has  lost  its  strength  and  crumbles 
between  the  fingers.  The  capital  of 
the  column  of  Taharka  at  Karnak  is 
composed  of  five  courses  of  stone,  each 
about  4"8  inches  high.  The  upper  and 
most  projecting  one  is  composed  of  twenty-six  stones 
the  points  of  which  converge  towards  the  centre  and 
are  held  in  place  solely  by  the  weight  of  the  square 
die  above  it.  The  same  carelessness  we  have  already 
observed  in  the  workmanship  of  the  walls  also  occurs 
in  the  workmanship  of  the  pillars  and  columns. 
•^  The  quadrangular  pillar,  with  parallel  or  slightiy_^ 
sloping  sides,  and  with  or  without  base  or  capital, 
appears  frequently  in  Alemphite  tombs.  It  occurs 
also   at    Medinet   Habu,  and  at  Karnak    in   what   is 


Fig.  61.  — Ha- 
thor  pillar, 
Abu  Simbel. 


PILLARS. 


6l 


The    sides    are 


known  as  the  processiona 
frequently  covered  with 
pictures  or  hieroglyphic 
jascriptions,  and  the 
principal  face  of  the 
pillar  has  a  special 
scheme  of  decoration. 
There  are  stems  of 
lotus  or  papyrus  on  the 
pillar-steke  of  Karnak, 
a  Hathor  head  sur- 
mounted by  the  sistrum 
of  the  goddess  at  the 
smaller  speos  of  Abu 
Simbel  (fig.  6i),  a 
standing  figure  of 
Osiris  in  the  first  court 
at  Medinet  Habu,  and 
of  Bes  at  Denderah 
and  Gebel  Barkal.  At 
Karnak,  in  the  chapel 
that  was  probably  con- 
structed for  Horcmheb 
from  the  ruins  of  a 
sanctuary  of  Amen- 
hotep  II.  and  III.,  the 
pillar  is  capped  by  a 
cornice,  separated  from 
the  architrave  by  a 
shallow  abacus  (fig,  62). 
By  cutting  away  the 
four  edges  the   pillar   is   rendered  octagonal  and    by 


Fig.  62. 


-Pillar  of  Amenbotep  111., 
Karnak. 


62 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


again  removing  the  eight  edges  it  becomes  sixteen- 
sided.  Some  pillars  in  the  tombs  of  Assuan  and 
Beni  Hasan  are  of  this  type,  as  well  as  in  the 
processional  hall  of  Karnak  (fig.  6^^)  and  in  the 
funerary  temples  of  Deir  el  Bahari. 

Besides  the  types  thus  regularly  evolved  there  are 
others  of  abnormal  derivation,  pillars  with  six,  twelve, 


rni^msz^mm 


Fig.  63.  —  Sixteen-sided  pillars,  Karnak. 


fifteen,  or  twenty  sides,  or  verging  on  a  perfect  circle. 
The  pillars  of  the  portico  of  the  temple  of  Osiris  at 
Abydos  end  the  series.  Here  the  main  part  of  the 
pillar  presents  a  curvilinear  section  scarcely  broken 
by  the  plain  band  at  the  top  and  bottom  which  is 
of  the  same  diameter.  Frequently  the  sides  are 
slightly  fluted  ;  and  sometimes,  as  at  Kalabsheh,  the 


COLUMNS. 


63 


flutings  are  divided  by  four  fillets  into  four  groups  of 

five   (fig.  64).     The    polygonal   pillar    has    always   a 

broad,   low    disc-shaped    plinth. 

At  El  Kab  it  has  a  Hathor  head     ^ 

projecting  from  the  face  of  the 

pillar  near  the  top  (fig.  65),  but 

almost  everywhere  else   it  ends 

in  a  simple  square  abacus  which 

joins  it  to  the  architrave.     Thus 

treated  it  bears  some  likeness  to 

The  Doric  column  and  explains 

why  Jomard   and   Champollion, 

in  the  first  ardour  of  discovery, 

called  it  proto-Doric,  a  title  for 

which  there  is  little  justification. 
The    column    does    not    rest 

immediately  upon    the    ground. 

It  always  has  a  plinth  similar  to  that  of  the  poly- 
gonal pillar,  a  solid  disc  intended  to  distribute  the 
weight.  This  base  is  generally 
plain,  or  ornamented  at  most 
with  a  line  of  hieroglyphs,  it 
is  sometimes  flat,  sometimes 
rounded  off  at  the  edge. 

The  principal  variants  of  the 
column  resolve  themselves  into 
fourclasses:  ist,the  column  with 
campaniform  or  bell  -  shaped 
capital, on  which  is  carved  either 

lotus  or  papyrus  in  flower  or  bud  ;  2nd,  the  column 

with  lotus-bud  capital ;  3rd,  the  column  with  palm-leaf 

capital ;  4th,  the  column  with  Hathor-head  capital. 


Fig.  64. — Fluted  pillar, 
Kalabsheh. 


Fig. 65.  — Polygonal  Hathor 
headed  pillar,  El  Kab. 


64 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


I.  Coluinu  witJi  Bell-sJiaped  Capital. — The  shaft  is 
generall}'  plain  or  simply  sculp- 
tured with  inscriptions  or  bas- 
reliefs.  Sometimes,  however,  as 
at  Medamot,  it  is  compounded  of 
six  large  and  six  small  columns 
alternated.  During  Pharaonic 
times  the  lower  part  swelled  out 
slightly  in  bulbous  form  and  was 
decorated  with  curvilinear  tri- 
angles in  imitation  of  the  large 
leaves  that  sheathe  the  sprouting 
plant.  The  curve  is  so  calculated 
as  to  equalise  the  diameter  at 
the  base  and  at  the  top.      In  the 

L  1 


Fig.  66.  — Column  with 
square  die. 


Ptolemaic  period  the  bulb 
often  disappeared,  owing  prob- 
ably to  Greek  influence:  the 
columns  that  surround  the 
first  court  of  the  temple  at 
Edfu  rise  straight  from  their 
plinths.  The  shafts  invariably 
contract  either  from  the  bulb 
or  immediately  from  the  base, 
and  end  above  in  three  or  five 
superimposed  flat  bands.  At 
Medamot,  w^here  the  shaft  is 
clustered,  the  architect  evidently 
considered  that  a  single  tie  did 
not  appear  sufficient  to  secure  Fig.67 
the  cluster  of  twelve  columns, 
and  he  has  marked  out  two  other 


Col umn  with  campa- 
iiiform  capital,  Ramesseum. 


rinfjs  of  flat  band.* 


CAMPANIFORM    CAPITALS. 


at  regular  intervals.  Round  the  neck  of  the  bell- 
shaped  capital  is  a  row  of  leaves  similar  to  those  at 
the  base,  and  from  these  spring  stems  of  lotus  and 
papyrus  in  flower  and  bud.  The  height  of  the  capital 
and  its  projection  vary  according  to  the  taste  of 
the  architect.  At  Luxor  the  campaniform  capitals 
measure  iih  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  17^  feet 
at  the  top,  and  1 1  h  feet  in  height.  At  Karnak 
in  the  hypostyle  hall  the  height  is 
12^  feet,  and  the  greatest  diameter 
2 1  feet.  A  square  die  surmounts  the 
whole.  This  is  fairly  low,  and  almost 
completely  masked  by  the  curve  of  the 
capital.  In  rare  instances,  as  in  the 
small  temple  of  Denderah,  the  die  is 
higher,  and  on  each  face  is  sculptured 
in  relief  a  figure  of  the  god  Bes 
(fig.  66). 

This  column  with  campaniform 
capital  is  most  usually  employed  in 
the  central  aisles  of  hypostyle  halls, 
as  at  Karnak,  the  Ramesseum  (fig.  6y), 
and  Luxor  ;  but  it  is  not  confined  to 
that  purpose,  and  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  porticoes  of 
the  Fifth  Dynasty  valley  temples  at  Abusir,  and 
those  of  Medinet  Habu,  Edfu,  and  PhiLx.  A  very 
curious  variant  is  to  be  seen  in  the  processional  hall 
of  Thothmes  III.  at  Karnak,  where  the  campaniform 
capital  is  reversed  as  well  as  the  shaft  itself  (fig.  6ii)  ; 
the  smaller  end  of  the  column  rises  from  the  plinth 
and  the  largest  part  is  at  the  top.  This  ungraceful 
arrangement  met  with  no  success,  and  we  find  no 
5 


Fig.  68.  —  Inverted 
campaniform 
capital,  Karnak. 


66 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


trace  of  it  elsewhere.  Other  novelties  were  happier, 
especially  those  that  enabled  the  artist  to  introduce 
decorative    elements    derived   from    the   flora   of  the 


Fig.  69. — Compound 
capital. 


Fig. 


70. — Ornate  capitals, 
Ptolemaic. 


Nile  valley.  As  we  approach  the  Ptolemaic  period 
we  find  the  capitals  decorated  with  groups  of  dates 
and  of  half-unfolded  blossoms  (fig.  69),  while  under 
the  Ptolemies  and  Caesars  the  capitals 
becafne  wreaths  of  flowers  and  leaves 
symmetrically  arranged  and  painted  in 
the  brightest  colours  (fig.  70).  There  is 
a  great  variety  of  designs  ;  at  Edfii, 
Ombos,  and  at  Philae  one  might  imagine 
that  the  artist  had  vowed  never  to  repeat 
the  same  pattern  on  the  same  side  of 
the  portico. 

II.  ColuDin  with  Lotus-bud  Capital. — It 
is   probable   that    this  column    originally 
represented  a  bundle  of  lotus-stems,  the 
Fig-  71-—      buds   tied    tocrether    round    the    neck   by 

Lotus-bud       .  r         T         ,  r  1  -1 

column,  Beni  lour  or  five  bands  to  form  the  capital. 
Hasan.  jj^^  columns  of  Beni  Hasan  consist  of 
four  rounded  stems  (fig.  71),  while  those  of  the 
Labyrinth,  the  processional  hall  of  Thothmes  III., 
and  of  Medamot  consist  of  eight  stems  with  projecting 
ridges  on  the  face  of  the  column  (fig.  72).     The  foot 


Lotus-bud  capitals. 


(>7 


of  the  column  is  bulbous  and  adorned  with  leaves ; 
the  top  is  bound  with  three  or  five  bands.  From  the 
lowest  of  these  descends  a  moulding  of  three  vertical 
bands  in  the  space  between  each  pair  of  stems  and 
forms  a  kind  of  fringe  round  the  upper  part  of  the 
column.  A  surface  thus 
broken  up  is  not  well 
adapted  for  hieroglyphic 
decoration,  and  therefore 
the  projections  were  gradu- 
ally done  away  with  and 
the  surface  left  plain.  In 
the  hypostyle  hall  at  Gurneh 
the  shaft  is  divided  into 
three  sections  :  the  middle 
one  is  plain  and  covered 
with  sculptures,  while  the 
upper  and  lower  divisions 
are  formed  of  clustered 
stems.  In  the  temple  of 
Khonsu,  in  the  lower  parts 
of  the  hypostyle  hall  of 
Karnak,  and  in  the  portico 
of  Medinet  Habu,  the  whole 
shaft  is  plain  ;  the  fringe  Fig.  72 
under  the  bands  is  retained, 
however,  and   the  existence 

of  the  stems  is  indicated  by  a  slight  ridge  in  the 
intervals  between  the  bands  (fig.  Jl).  The  capital 
also  became  degraded.  At  Beni  Hasan  it  is  gracefully 
fasciculated  from  top  to  bottom.  In  the  processional 
hall  of  Thothmes  III.  at  Luxor  and  at  Medamot  a 


Lotus-bud  column, 
processional  hall  of  Thothmes 
ill.,  Karnak. 


68 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


circle  of  small  pointed  leaves  and  channellings  sur- 
rounds the  base  and  impoverishes  the  effect  ;  the 
capital  is  little  more  than  a  truncated  and  fluted 
cone.  In  the  hypostyle  hall  at  Karnak,  at  Abydos, 
the   Ramesseum,  and  at  Medinet  Habu,  the  flutings 

are  superseded  by  a  variety 
of  ornamentations,  triangular 
leaves,  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions or  bands  bearing  car- 
touches flanked  with  uraei, 
which  fill  the  space  thus  left 
vacant.  The  abacus  is  not 
concealed  as  in  the  cam- 
pan  i  form  columns,  but  stands 
out  boldh'  and  bears  the 
royal  cartouche. 

III.  Column  ivitJi  Palm- 
leaf  Capital. — This  column 
rises  direct  from  its  plinth, 
and  tapers  regularly  and 
slightly  to  the  top.  It 
supports  a  crown  of  palm- 
branches  springing  from  the 
band,  their  heads  curving 
under  the  weight  of  the  abacus  (fig.  74).  This 
column,  well  known  in  work  of  later  date,  is  now 
shown  to  be  of  very  early  origin.  The  funerary 
temples  attached  to  the  pyramids  of  the  Pharaohs 
of  the  Fifth  Dynasty  at  Abusir  have  been  excavated, 
and  many  columns  of  this  type  have  been  found.  It 
is  very  charming  and  graceful.  At  Abusir,  below 
the  central  palm-branch,  there  falls  from  the  fivefold 


Fig-  73- — Column   in  aisles   of 
hypostyle  hall,  Karnak. 


PALM-LEAF   AND    HATHOR-UEAD   CAPITALS.      69 


Fig.  74. —Palm-leaf 
capital. 


band  a  short  loop,  which  may  represent  the  cord  by 

which    the    Egyptian    climbs     the 

palm.    The  plinth  is  low  and  some- 
what flat ;  above  the  capital  there 

is  a  cubical   block  of  stone. 

IV.  Column    with    HatJior-  head 

Capital. — We  find  examples  of  the 

Hathor-headed  column  dating  from 

ancient  times,  as  at  Deir  el  Bahari, 

in  the  temples  both  of  the  Eleventh 

and  Eighteenth  Dynasties  ;  but  this 

order  is  best  known  in  buildings  of 

the  Ptolemaic  period,  as  at  Contra 

Latopolis,    Philae,    and     Denderah. 

The    shaft    and    base    present    no 

special  characteristics,  they  resemble  those  of  the 
campaniform  columns.  The  capital 
^  represented  Hathor,  the  woman's 
head  with  the  heifer's  ears,  carved 
in  high  relief  on  each  side  of  a 
square  block.  Her  hair,  bound 
over  the  brows  by  three  vertical 
bands,  falls  behind  the  ears  and 
over  the  shoulders.  Each  head 
supports  a  fluted  cornice,  on  which 
stands  a  naos  flanked  by  two 
volutes  and  crowned  by  a  shallow 
abacus  (fig.  75).  Thus  four  Hathor- 
heads  form  the  capital  of  the 
column.  Seen  from  a  distance  the 
whole  structure  recalls  one  of  those 


^^Z-   75- — Hathor-head 
capital,  Ptolemaic. 


sistra  represented  in 


religious  bas-reliefs  held  in  the 


^o 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


^^3^^^ 


hands  of  queens  and  goddesses.  It  is  in  fact  a 
sistrum  ;  but  the  usual  proportions  have  been  dis- 
regarded— the  handle  is  enormous,  while  the  upper 
part  of  the  instrument  is  immxcasurably  reduced. 
This  design  proved  so  popular  that  it  was  unhesi- 
tatingly combined  with  elements  borrowed  from  other 
orders.  The  four  heads  of  Hathor  placed  above  a 
campaniform  capital  furnished  Nectenebo  with  the 
composite  type  employed  in  his 
pavilion  at  Phite  (fig.  76).  The 
combination  cannot  be  said  to  be 
very  satisfactory  ;  nevertheless,  seen 
in  position  it  is  less  ugly  than  it 
appears  in  drawings. 

Shafts  of  columns  were  regulated 
b\'  no  fixed  rules  of  proportion  or 
arrangement.  The  architect  could,  if 
he  wished,  assign  equal  heights  to 
columns  of  very  different  diameters, 
and,  \Vithout  regard  to  any  considera- 

"foi'a„"d''HT.r;  tions  =»I«'t  f™-^  those  of  general 
headed  capital,  harmon\%  he  could  design  the  various 
parts  on  whatever  scale  he  pleased. 
The  dimensions  of  the  capital  bore  no  fixed  relations 
with  those  of  the  shaft,  and  the  height  of  the  shaft 
in  no  way  depended  on  the  diameter  of  the  column. 
At  Karnak  the  dimensions  of  the  campaniform 
columns  of  the  hypostyle  hall  are  as  follows:  the 
capital  is  10  feet  high,  the  shaft  is  rather  less 
than  55  feet  high,  and  measures  11  feet  8  inches 
in  diameter  near  the  base  :  at  Luxor  the  capital  is 
11^  feet  high,  the   shaft   49  feet  high,    and  ii\  feet 


IRREGULAR    PROPORTIONS   OF   COLUMNS. 


71 


round  the  bulb.  At  the  Ramesseum  shaft  and 
capital  measure  35  feet,  round  the  bulb  6|  feet. 
There  is  a  similar  irregularity  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  architraves  ;  their  height  is  determined  by 
the  taste  of  the  architect  or  the  necessities  of  the 
building.     So  also  with  the  spacing  of  columns.     Not 


Fig.    77.-  Section  of  hypostyle  hall  at  Karnak,  showing  the  arrange 
ments  of  the  campaniform  and  lotus-bud  columns. 


only  do  the  intercolumnar  spaces  vary  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent temples  and  chambers,  but  in  some  instances, 
as  in  the  first  court  of  Medinet  Habu,  they  vary  in 
the  same  portico.  This  was  the  case  when  the 
various  architectural  types  were  employed  separately, 
when  they  were  associated  in  the  same  building  ;  it 
wa?    not    considered    necessary   to    give    them    fixed 


72  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

proportions  in  harmony  with  each  other.  In  the 
hypostyle  hall  of  Karnak  the  campaniform  columns 
support  the  highest  part,  and  the  lotus-bud  columns 
are  relegated  to  the  lower  aisles  (fig.  "^y^.  .  In  the 
temple  of  Khonsu  there  are  halls  where  the  lotus 
column  is  the  highest,  and  others  where  the  cam- 
paniform columns  are  the  loftiest.  x^t  Medamot 
all  the  columns  that  still  remain  are  of  uniform 
height.  Egypt  never  had  definite  orders  of  archi- 
tecture such  as  Greece  possessed.  Her  architects 
attempted  all  possible  combinations  to  which  the 
elements  of  the  column  lent  themselves,  but  without 
assigning  to  them  such  definite  proportions,  that, 
given  one  member  of  it,  it  would  be  possible  to 
deduct  even  approximately  the  dimensions  of  the 
remaining  parts. 

2. TEMPLES. 

Most  of  the  famous  sanctuaries,  Denderah,  Edfu, 
Abydos,  were  founded  before  Menes  by  the  Servants 
of  Horus.  It  is  probable  that  originally  they  were 
mere  huts,  but  they  were  rebuilt,  remodelled,  and 
added  to  by  successive  generations  till  nothing  re- 
mained of  the  primitive  design  to  show  us  what  it 
was  like.  The  funerary  temples  of  the  Memphite 
kings  have  actually  been  excavated,  and  furnish 
abundant  examples  of  the  religious  architecture  of 
the  great  pyramid  period. 

Seneferu,  last  king  of  the  Third  Dynasty,  built  his 
pyram.id  at  Medilm,  and  on  the  east  wall  is  his 
small  temple,  built  entirely  of  limestone.  It  consists 
of  a  passage,  a  chamber,  and  finally  a  court,  where 


VALLEY   TEMPLES.  73 

stood  two  stelai  nearly  14  feet  high,  flanking  a  lime- 
stone altar.  The  whole  is  plain,  without  decoration 
or  inscriptions.  There  are  traces  of  a  walled  cause- 
way leading  to  it  from  the  plain.*  The  temple  was 
much  visited  during  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  by 
scribes,  who  left  graffiti  recording  their  admiration 
of  the  building  and  their  belief  that  Seneferu  had 
raised  it  for  himself  and  his  queen. 

The  ruined  funerary  temple  of  the  second  pyramid 
of  Gizeh,  that  of  Khafra,  was  completely  excavated 
in  1 9 10,  and  the  plan  recovered. f  The  builders  of 
the  pyramids  brought  their  materials  by  boat  during 
the  inundation  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  where  a  quay 
was  constructed  to  receive  them,  and  the  weighty 
stones  were  then  dragged  up  a  sloping  causeway  to 
the  building  site.  The  pyramid  and  its  temple  com- 
pleted, it  appears  that  a  gateway  that  was  also  a 
temple  was  built  on  the  quay,  and  the  cause- 
way covered  in,  thus  connecting  the  upper  temple 
with  its  complement  below.  Ramps  were  also  con- 
structed by  which  the  high  quay  or  terrace  could  be 
approached  from  the  valley  after  the  water  had  sub- 
sided. The  valley  temple  would  be  of  great  impor- 
tance to  visitors  arriving  by  water  during  the  inunda- 
tion, and  it  was  provided  with  everything  necessary 
for  the  cult^of  the  dead. 

The  temple  of  the  second  pyramid  has  been  com- 
pletely ruined,  but  the  valley  temple  is  almost  perfect, 
the  well-known  granite  temple  that  stands  about  50 

*  W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  Median. 

f  U.  Holscher,  Das  Grabdenkmal  des  Konigs  Chephreit.  Ernst  von 
Sieglin  Expedition,  1912. 


74  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

yards  to  the  south  of  the  sphinx.  It  was  discovered 
in  1853,  and  partially  excavated.  In  1910  the  facade 
was  relieved  of  the  30  feet  of  sand  under  which  it 
was  buried  ;  the  causeway  that  connects  it  with  the 
upper  pyramid  temple  was  also  cleared,  and  the 
entire  group  can  now  be  studied  as  a  whole,  flanked 
by  the  great  sphinx,  which  probably  represents 
Khafra  himself  guarding  his  temples  and  pyramid 
by  the  magic  power  possessed  by  a  sphinx. 

The  main  axis  extends  from  east  to  west.  The 
core  masonry  of  the  valley  temple  is  of  fine  Turah 
limestone  ;  the  casings,  pillars,  architraves,  and  every 
part  of  the  building  visible  from  below  was  constructed 
of  great  blocks  of  red  granite  or  alabaster.  The 
facade  was  plundered  in  ancient  times,  and  little  of  the 
casing  remains.  Mounting  one  of  the  two  ramps  (fig. 
78)  that  led  to  the  quay,  the  visitor  was  confronted  by 
a  building  that  externally  resembled  a  mastaba. 
The  sloping  walls  were  unbroken  save  by  two  doors 
near  the  north  and  south  corners  of  the  facade. 
These  doors  were  guarded  on  both  sides  by  sphinxes, 
over  25  feet  in  length,  of  which  only  the  substructures 
now  remain.  In  front  of  the  facade  in  the  centre 
was  a  naos,  which  closed  with  double  doors,  and 
probably  contained  a  statue  of  the  Pharaoh.  The 
granite  doorways  were  inscribed,  but  most  of  the 
blocks  have  disappeared.  The  plan  of  the  interior 
is  very  simple.  Both  doors  communicate  with  a 
vestibule,  which  opens  into  a  hall  in  shape  of  the 
letter  T,  supported  by  sixteen  square  granite  pillars 
16  feet  high.  At  the  south-west  corner  of  this  hall 
there  is  a  recess,  in  which  are  six  niches  in  two  rows 


GRANITE  TEMPLE  OF  KHAFRA. 


75 


Pyramid  enclosure 


fwm^mm^f^mmm. 


side  enTranee 


charinbeirs  for  staiiies 


Fig.    78.— Plan  of  temple   and   valley 
temple   of  the  Piramid  of  Khafra, 
Gizeh.—Borchardt,   Das    Grabdenk- 
mal  dcs  K'dnigs  Chephren. 
By  permission  of  Messrs.  Hinrichs. 


^6  RELIGIOUS    ARCHITECTURE. 

one  above  another.  The  transverse  corridor  which 
unites  them  is  provided  with  small  openings  for 
ventilation,  a  very  necessary  arrangement,  as  here 
doubtless  were  stored  the  lights,  oils,  sacred  vessels, 
and  other  requirements  of  the  cult.  At  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  great  hall  there  is  a  chamber  built 
entirely  of  alabaster,  which  has  hitherto  been  called 
the  porter's  lodge,  but  which  has  only  the  same 
scanty  ventilation  as  the  magazines.  The  roof  is 
reached  by  ramps. 

The  great  hall  is  lighted  by  oblique  openings 
constructed  in  the  angle  of  the  roof  and  the  top  of 
the  walls.  The  floor,  like  that  of  the  vestibule,  is  of 
alabaster.  There  are  no  inscriptions,  bas-reliefs,  or 
paintings,  and  yet  the  walls  produce  as  great  an 
impression  as  the  most  richly  decorated  temples,  the 
result  of  severe  simplicity  of  outline,  and  exactness 
of  proportion,  combined  with  the  grandeur  of  solid 
blocks  of  granite.  A  mass  of  fragments  of  broken 
statuary,  and  a  careful  examination  of  the  flooring 
under  the  alabaster  by  the  members  of  the  Sieglin 
Expedition,  have  shown  that  round  this  hall  was  ranged 
a  series  of  twenty-three  seated  statues  of  Khafra, 
more  than  life-size.  Most  of  them  were  in  alabaster, 
others  were  in  mottled  blue-grey  diorite  and  in  greenish 
metamorphic  schist. 

The  causeway  is  of  plain  limestone,  lighted  by 
small  apertures  at  regular  intervals.  It  measures 
1,308  feet  in  length,  and  opens  at  the  top  end  into 
the  upper  temple.  On  the  left  was  a  small  chamber, 
which  may  have  been  a  doorkeeper's  lodge,  and  on 
the  rigrht  was  the  vestibule  flanked  on  the  north  side 


PYRAMID   TEMf^LE   OF    KHAFRA.  J^ 

by  store-chambers.  Two  halls  in  succession  led  to 
the  great  court.  Two  very  deep,  narrow  cells, 
apparently  serdabs  (cf.  p.  143),  communicated  with  the 
first  of  these  halls  by  two  small  slits.  The  great  open 
court  was  surrounded  by  a  passage,  and  all  round  its 
walls  at  regular  intervals  were  doorways  that  opened 
into  it,  five  on  each  long  wall,  and  three  at  each  end. 
These  doorways  were  painted  with  hieroglyphic  in- 
scriptions in  green  and  blue,  and  between  each  was 
an  Osiride  figure,  presumably  a  portrait  of  Khafra. 
The  surrounding  passage  opened  on  the  west  side 
into  five  deep  and  narrow  chambers,  each  of  which 
probably  contained  a  statue  of  the  king,  as  similar 
recesses  for  statues  have  been  found  in  the  mortuary 
temples  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty.  Behind  was  a  series 
of  magazines  or  storerooms.  Against  the  western 
wall  was  the  sanctuary,  with  the  niche  for  the  false 
door  and  stela,  in  its  place  parallel  to  the  eastern 
wall  of  the  pyramid. 

At  the  south-west  corner  there  was  a  second 
entrance,  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  approached 
the  temple  from  the  high  ground,  with  chambers  for 
the  doorkeeper.  The  work  of  the  upper  temple  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  lower  one  ;  the  walls  were  cased 
with  granite  over  a  core  of  limestone.  The  great 
granite  columns  of  the  upper  temple  are  destroyed, 
but  the  pavement  of  the  second  hall  still  shows  the 
cavities  where  they  stood. 

The  valley  temple  of  Menkaura  was  never  finished 
according  to  the  original  plan.  The  work  was 
probably  stopped  by  the  death  of  the  king,  but 
magnificent    statuary    had    been    prepared,  and    was 


^8  RELIGIOUS    ARCHITECTURE. 

found  in  1909  by  Dr.  Reisner  during  his  excavations 
there. 

The  temples  of  the  three  pyramids  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty  at  Abusir  have  also  been  excavated.*  The 
facade  of  the  valley  temple  is  lightened  by  a 
columned  portico.  Inside,  the  heavy  pillars  of  the 
Fourth  Dynasty  give  way  to  the  graceful  polygonal 
or  palm-leaf  columns.  The  covered  causeway  leads 
to  the  upper  temple.  Here  the  arrangements  are  in 
the  main  similar  to  those  of  Khafra.  There  are  the 
halls  and  courts,  the  side  entrances,  the  narrow  cham- 
bers for  statues,  and  the  sanctuary  the  Holy  of  Holies 
against  the  west  wall.  In  some  cases  ramps  lead 
from  one  court  to  another,  and  within  the  enclosing 
wall  are  dwellings  for  the  priests.  The  decorations 
are  elaborate.  The  walls  of  the  upper  and  lower 
temples,  and  of  the  long  covered  passages,  are  finely 
sculptured,  and  the  ceiling  of  the  pillared  hall  in  the 
temple  of  Ne-user-ra  is  covered  with  gold  stars  on  a 
blue  ground. 

It  was  known  from  the  inscriptions  that  certain 
kings  of  the  Memphite  dynasties  had  erected  special 
temples  to  the  sun-god.  The  hieroglyph  determina- 
tive that  followed  the  name  of  these  temples  showed 
an  obelisk  on  a  high  platform  or  base.  At  Abu 
Gurab,  near  Abusir,  the  place  of  one  of  these  sun- 
temples  has*  been  recovered — namely,  one  built  by 
King  Ne-user-ra  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty  (fig.  79).  It 
consists  of  two  courts  ;  the  principal  one  on  the 
western  side  is  a  rectangular  enclosure,  held  up  by  a 

*  L.  Borchardt,  Grabdcukmal  des  Konigs  Sahiire.  Deutsch-Orient. 
Gesellschaft. 


TEMPLE   OF   THE   SUN, 


79 


Strong  retaining  wall.  Under  the  pavement  traces 
have  been  found  of  brick  buildings,  levelled  in  pre- 
paring the  foundations.  The  temple  axis  runs  from 
east  to  west,  the  entrance  being  in  the  middle  of  the 
east  wall.  Covered  passages  and  chambers  sur- 
rounded the  courts.  A  square  mastaba-shaped 
structure  with  sides  sloping  at  an  angle  of  14  degrees 


-^j:,^ 


y^^ 


Fig.  79-— The  temple  of  the  Sun  at  Abu  Guiab,  reconstructed.— From 
A  Handbook  of  Egyptian  Religion  (A.  Erman).  By  permission  of 
Messrs.  Constable  &  Co. 


occupied  the  place  of  the  sanctuary,  towards  the 
western  end  of  the  court.  It  was  cased  below  with 
granite,  above  with  fine  limestone,  and  on  it  un- 
doubtedly stood  the  obelisk,  the  symbol  of  the  sun- 
god  himself.  Access  to  this  was  afforded  by  a  stair- 
case inside  the  base.  In  the  courtyard  below,  directly 
opposite  the   entrance,    but   near   the  obelisk   on   its 


80  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

truncated  pyramid,  stands  a  flat,  rectangular  altar, 
4  feet  high,  formed  of  five  alabaster  blocks.  The 
main  walls  are  built  of  yellow  limestone  faced  with 
slabs  of  white.  In  many  parts  the  walls  are  finely 
sculptured  with  scenes  in  relief,  some  of  them  relating 
to  the  overflowing  fertility  and  fecundit}'  of  fields  and 
flocks  due  to  the  beneficent  might  of  the  sun,  of 
which  the  produce  is  offered  him  in  turn  by  personified 
figures  of  each  season. 

North  of  the  altar  is  a  channelled  platform  slightly 
raised  above  the  pavement  level,  the  channels  deepen- 
ing towards  the  east,  which  was  probably  a  place  of 
slaughter  for  sacrificial  \'ictims.  Opposite  to  it,  at 
the  east  end,  are  nine  (originally  ten)  great  basins  cut 
in  quadrangular  blocks  of  alabaster. 

Somewhat  to  the  south  of  the  temple  outside  the 
retaining  wall  were  found  the  remains  of  a  boat,  the 
sacred  boat  of  the  sun,  about  lOO  feet  long,  for  use  in 
the  solar  ceremonies.  It  was  constructed  of  brick 
and  wood.  The  wood  has  rotted  away,  but  the 
brickwork  of  the  boat  is  easily  visible  and  re- 
cognisable. Such  is  the  temple  constructed  in  honour 
of  the  sun  by  Ne-user-ra  within  a  short  distance  of 
his  own  pyramid  and  funerary  temple.  It  is  a  type 
of  building  previously  unknown  to  us. 

Some  scattered  remains  of  temples  of  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty  in  Nubia,  the  Fayum,  and  at  Sinai,  are  not 
sufficient  to  prove  whether  they  merited  the  praises 
lavished  on  them  in  contemporary  inscriptions. 
Much  of  the  masonry  of  the  ruined  temple  of  the 
Eleventh  Dynasty  at  Deir  el  Bahari  is  extremely 
good.      It  is  finely  jointed  and  laid  in  regular  courses 


THE   SANCTUARY.  8l 

of  deep  and  shallow  blocks  alternately,  similar  to  the 
splendid  masonry  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  at  DahshClr.* 
The  temples  of  the  Theban  kings,  of  the  Ptolemies, 
and  of  the  Caesars  are  many  of  them  intact,  and  easy 
to  be  reconstructed  by  those  who  study  them  on  the 
spot.  At  first  sight  they  seem  to  present  a  great 
variety  as  to  arrangement,  but  on  a  closer  examina- 
tion they  are  found  to  conform  to  a  single  type.  The 
sanctuary,  as  we  saw  it  in  the  primitive  temples,  is 
still  there,  but  it  has  gathered  round  it  an  assemblage 
of  courts  and  chambers.  The  sanctuary  is  a  small, 
low,  and  dark  chamber,  inaccessible  to  all  except 
Pharaoh  and  the  priests.  A  sacred  bark  with  its 
tabernacle  of  painted  wood  standing  either  on  a 
pedestal,  in  a  niche  in  the  wall,  or  on  a  block  of 
stone,  contained  the  image  or  symbol  of  the  god,  and 
on  certain  days  an  image  of  the  animal  sacred  to  him, 
or  even  a  living  animal.  These  sanctuaries  were 
fitted  with  a  metal  framework  into  which  double 
doors  were  inserted,  closed  with  wooden  bars,  and 
jealously  sealed.  The  sacred  bark  was  taken  out  on 
stated  days  to  be  carried  in  procession  round  the 
town  and  then  returned  to  the  sanctuary.  The 
directions  for  the  elaborate  daily  ceremonies  are 
carefully  set  forth  to  prevent  any  possibility  of 
mistake.  A  temple  might  contain  nothing  more 
than  this  single  chamber,  and  yet  be  as  much  a 
temple  as  the  most  complex  building,  but  it  rarely 
happened,  at  any  rate  in  the  larger  towns,  that  the 
people  would    be  content   to  provide  the  deity  with 

*  Naville.  The  Eleventh  Dynasty   Temple  at  Deir  el  Bahari,  vol.   i. 
EgN'pt  Exploration  Fund,  1910. 

6 


82  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

such  bare  necessaries.  Storehouses  for  sacrificial  and 
ceremonial  objects,  for  flowers,  perfumes,  stuffs,  and 
precious  vases,  were  crowded  round  the  divine  house. 
In  front  of  the  block  thus  formed  were  built  one  or 
more  colonnaded  halls,  where  priests  and  devotees 
assembled.  Before  these  was  an  open  court  sur- 
rounded by  colonnades  to  which  the  crowds  had 
access,  and  which  was  entered  by  a  gateway  flanked 
by  two  towers,  in  front  of  which  were  placed  two 
statues  or  obelisks.  Round  the  whole  was  an 
enclosing  brick  wall,  and  an  avenue  of  sphinxes 
that  lead  up  to  the  entrance  provided  ample  room  for 
the  great  processions  on  feast  days.  Any  Pharaoh 
who  desired  could  add  a  hall  even  more  sumptuous 
than  those  of  his  predecessors,  and  his  example 
would  in  turn  be  followed  by  his  successors.  Thus 
from  reign  to  reign  the  original  sanctuary  became 
more  and  more  surrounded  b}-  halls  and  courts, 
pylons  and  porticoes.  Whether  the  result  of  vanity 
or  of  piety,  the  temple  expanded  till  the  work  was  at 
last  stopped  for  want  of  space  or  money. 

The  less  elaborate  temples  were  often  the  most 
beautiful.  This  was  the  case  with  the  temple  of 
Amenhotep  III.  on  the  island  of  Elephantine,  of 
which  drawings  were  made  by  members  of  the  French 
expedition  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
before  its  destruction  in  1822  by  the  Turkish  governor 
of  Assiian.  The  best  preserved  of  these,  the  southern 
one  (fig.  80),  had  only  one  hall,  in  sandstone,  14  feet 
high,  31  feet  wide,  and  39  feet  long.  The  walls, 
which  were  straight  and  surmounted  with  the  usual 
cornice,  stood  on  a  stone  basement  some  8  feet  high. 


THE  SIMPLER   TEMPLES. 


83 


This  platform  was  surrounded  by  a  parapet  breast- 
high.  Round  the  temple  was  a  colonnade,  composed 
of  seven  square  pillars  on  each  side  without  capital 
or  base.  At  each  end  were  two  lotiform  columns. 
Pillars  and  columns  rested  on  the  parapet,  except  at 
the  east  end,  where  a  set  of  ten  or  twelve  steps 
enclosed  between  walls  the  same  height  as  the 
parapet  led  up  to  the  cella.  The  two  columns 
at  the  head  of  the  steps  were  more  widely  spaced 
than    those    at     the    other    end,    and    in     the     wide 


Fig.  So.  —Southern  terfjple  of  Amenhotep  III.  at  Elephantine. 


opening  a  richly  decorated  doorway  was  visible. 
There  was  a  second  door  at  the  other  end  under 
the  colonnade.  Later,  during  the  Roman  period, 
advantage  was  taken  of  this  arrangement  to  modify 
the  plan.  The  intercolumnar  spaces  at  the  end  were 
filled  up,  and  thus  an  additional  chamber  was  ob- 
tained, rough  and  without  decoration,  but  sufficient 
for  the  requirements  of  the  cult.  The  temples  of 
Elephantine  recall  the  peripteral  temples  of  the 
Greeks,  and  this  resemblance  to  one  of  the  well- 
known    forms   of   classical   architecture    perhaps    ex- 


84 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


plains    the    admiration    manifested    by    the    French 
savants  on  first  seeing  them. 

The  temples  of  Mesheikh,  El  Kab  (fig.  8i),  and 
Sharona  are  more  elaborate.  At  El  Kab  there  is 
a  hall  of  four  columns  (a),  a  chamber  (b),  supported 
b}'  four  Hathor  pillars,  and  in  the  end  wall  facing  the 

doorway  a  niche  (c)  ap- 
proached by  four  steps. 
The  most  complete  speci- 
men we  possess  of  these 
small  sanctuaries  belong- 
ing to  provincial  towns  is 
of  the  Ptolem.aic  period, 
the  temple  of  Hathor  at 
Deir  el  Medineh  (fig.  82). 
The  length  is  double  the 
breadth,  the  walls  slope 
inwards  and  are  bare  of 
ornament  on  the  outside 
face,  with  the  exception 
of  the  doorway,  which 
projects  and  is  covered 
^vith  sculptured  scenes. 
The  interior  is  in  three 
parts :  a  portico  (b)  of  two 
campaniform  columns,  a  pro-naos  (c),  reached  by  a 
set  of  four  steps  and  divided  from  the  portico  by 
a  wall  the  height  of  a  man.  This  is  ranged  between 
two  campaniform  columns  and  two  pilasters  with 
Hathor  capitals  ;  finally  there  is  the  sanctuary  (d), 
flanked  by  two  small  cells  (e,  e),  lighted  by  two 
air-holes  in  the  roof.     The  roof  is  reached  from  the 


F'ig.  81. — Plan  of  temple  of 
Amenhotep  III.  near  El  Kab. 


TEMPLK  OK  KHONSU,  KARNAK. 


85 


southern  angle  of  the  portico  by  a  staircase  lighted 
by  a  window  (f)  from  the  outside.  This  is  merely 
a  temple  in  miniature,  but  the  various  parts  are  so 
finely  proportioned  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  any- 
thing more  graceful  and  charming. 

As   much  cannot  be  said  for  the  temple  built  by 
the  Pharaohs  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty  to  the  south 
of  Karnak,  in  honour  of  the  god  Khonsu  (fig.  83),  but 
although    the    style    may 
not  be  beyond   reproach, 
the    plan     is    so    distinct 
that    one    is    inclined    to 
adopt      it     as     the     type 
of   the   Egyptian   temple 
in     preference    to    others 
more  majestic  or  graceful. 
On    analysis    it    resolves 
itself      into      two      parts 
separated  by  a  thick  wall 
(a,  a).     In  the  centre  of 
the    smaller    part    is    the 
Holy  of  Holies  (e),  open 
at  both  ends  and  entirely 
isolated     from     the     rest 
passage  (c),  10  feet  in  width  ;  to  right  and  left  are 
small  dark   chambers   (d,  d)  ;  behind   a  hall  of  four 
columns    (e),   on  which  open    seven  other  chambers 
(f,  f).     This  was  the  house  of  the  god,  and   the  only 
communication  from  without  was  by  two  doors  (g,  g) 
in  the  central  wall  (A,  A),  which  opened  on  a  hypo- 
style  hall  (h),  greater  in  breadth  than  in  length,  ar.d 
divided  into  three  aisles.     The  central  aisle  rests  on 


Fisr. 


-Plan  of  temple  of  Hathor, 
Deir  el  Medineh. 


of     the     building     by     a 


86 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


four  campaniform  columns  23  feet  in  height  ;  the  side 
aisles  have  only  two  lotiform  columns  18  feet  high. 
The  central  portion  is  5  feet  higher  than  the  side 
aisles.  Advantage  was  taken  of  this  difference  in 
height  to  secure  light.  In  the  space  between  the 
upper  and  lower  roofing  windows  with  stone  mulHons 
were  inserted,  through  which 
the  light  filtered.  The  court  (j) 
was  square,  surrounded  by  a 
double  colonnade.  The  entrance 
to  this  hall  was  by  four  lateral 
posterns,  and  by  an  immense 
gateway  between  two  quad- 
rangular towers,  with  sloping 
fronts.    This  pylon  (k)  measures 


@  @  o   000 

Q  @  O    Q  Q  Q 

O  ®  0  0 

©  ®  /       @  O 

Q  Q  OQ) 

O  ©  ©  0 


10;    feet   in    lensrth, 


feet 


width,  and  60  feet  in  height.  It 
contains  no  chamber,  but  a 
narrow  staircase,  which  leads 
straight    to    the    lintel    of    the 

^^^^M    g^^^^^^'^y^  ^"<^  from  there  to  the 
^-^'"'^■"^^^    summit  of  the  two  towers.     The 
^'^•/i^r^^^^V^  ^T^^^    faces  of  these   towers   are  lined 

of  Khonsu,  Karnak. 

with  four  angulated  grooves  up 
to  a  third  of  their  height,  corresponding  with  as  many 
square  holes  worked  through  the  block  of  masonry. 
In  these  grooves  great  wooden  masts  were  placed, 
made  of  beams  jointed  into  each  other,  strengthened 
at  intervals  by  a  species  of  clasp,  and  fastened  by 
wooden  clutches  fixed  in  the  square  holes.  Near 
the  top  fluttered  pennants  of  various  colours  (fig.  84). 
Such  was  the  temple  of  Khonsu,  and  similar  to  it 


THE   GREAT   TKMI'LES. 


87 


in  the  main  lines  were  the  majority  of  the  greater 
temples  of  the  Theban  and  Ptolemaic  periods  :  Luxor, 
the  Ramesseum,  Medinet  Habu,  Phila-,  Edfu,  Den- 
derah.  Half  in  ruins  as  they  are,  their  very  aspect 
is  strangely  overpowering  and  alarming.  As  the 
Egyptian  divinities  elected  to  be  enshrouded  in  mys- 
tery, the  plan  of  the  building  was  so  arranged  as  to 
lead  gradually  from  the  glare  of  the  outside  world 
to  the  darkness  of  their  abode.  On  first  entering 
there  were  vast  spaces 
where  sun  and  air  could  | 
freely  enter.  The  hypo-  k 
style  hall  was  shaded  in  | 
twilight,  the  antechamber  'WMM 
to  the  sanctuary  was  yet  '^m,  \ 
more  dim,  while  beyond 
in  the  farthest  recesses  of 
the  temple  almost  com- 
plete    darkness     reigned. 

The  sensation  of  aloofness    Fig.  84.— Pylon  with  masts,   from 

produced  by  this  gradual      ^^,^^'"5^1;^^  'I  ^^^  ^^""^^^   ""^ 

^  /  &>  Khonsu,  Karnak. 

loss  of  light  was  aug- 
mented by  artifices  in  the  construction  of  the  build- 
ing. The  halls  were  not  on  the  same  level.  The 
floor  rose  in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  the 
entrance  (fig.  85),  and  there  were  always  steps  to 
be  mounted  in  passing  from  one  part  to  another. 
The  difference  in  level  was  not  more  than  5  feet 
3  inches  in  the  temple  of  Khonsu,  but  it  is  com- 
bined with  a  lowering  of  the  roof  which  is  very 
noticeable.  From  the  pylon  to  the  wall  at  the 
farthest  end  the  height  of  the  roof  decreases  in  pro- 


i_MM[ 


88  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

gressive  stages :  the  peristyle  dominates  the  first 
hypostyle  ;  this  overtops  the  sanctuary,  while  the 
second  hypostyle  and  the  end  chamber  are  yet  lower. 
The  effect  is  very  noticeable  when  seen  from  the 
summit  of  one  of  the  pylons  ;  the  roofs  of  the  dif- 
ferent halls  sink  lower  and  lower  to  the  surrounding 
wall,  like  a  series  of  wide  steps.  The  architects  of 
the  Ptolemaic  period  introduced  some  important 
modifications.  They  contrived  secret  passages  and 
crypts  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  where  the  priest 
could  conceal  the  treasure  of  the  god  (fig.  86).  They 
also  erected  chapels  and  oratories  on  the  roof,  where, 
screened   by   the    high    parapets,   they   could   unseen 


Fig.  85. — The  Ramesseum  restored,  showing  the  rise  of  the  ground. 

perform  the  mysteries  of  the  death  and  resurrection 
of  Osiris. 

The  sanctuary  had  hitherto  had  two  entrances 
opposite  each  other,  they  left  but  one  ;  the  colonnade 
that  extended  across  the  back  of  the  court — or  where 
the  court  did  not  exist,  on  the  facade  of  the  temple — 
now  became  a  new  court,  the  pronaos.  The  outer 
row  of  columns  is  retained,  but  it  is  connected  by  a 
wall  surmounted  by  a  cornice  that  reaches  to  about 
half  the  height  of  the  shafts,  and  prevented  the  outer 
throng  from  seeing  what  was  taking  place  be\'ond 
(fig.  87).  This  hall  is  supported  by  two,  three,  or 
even   four  rows  of  columns,  according  to  the  size  of 


PTOLEMAIC    TEMPLES. 


89 


the  rest  uf  the  building.  For  the  rest,  a  coinparison 
of  the  plan  of  the  temple  of  Edfu  (fig.  88)  with  that 
of   the    temple    of    Khonsu    will    show    how    little 


Fig.  86. — Crypts  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls  round  the  sanctuary 
at  Denderah. 


they  differ  from  each  other.  Thus  equipped  the 
building  sufficed  for  all  the  requirements  of  the  cult. 
When  it  was  enlarged,  as  a  rule  neither  the  sanctuary 
nor   the   chambers   surrounding  it   were   altered,   but 


90 


RELIGIOUS    ARCHITECTURE. 


the  outlying  parts,  the  courts,  hypostylc  halls,  and 
pylons.  Nothing  serves  better  than  the  history  of 
the  temple  of  Amon  at  Thebes  to  illustrate  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Egyptians  under  such  circumstances. 
It  was  founded  by  Senusert  (Usertesen)  I.,  probably 
on  the  site  of  a  yet    earlier    temple.       Both    Amen- 


Fig.  87. — The  pronaos  of  Edfu,  as  seen  from  the  top  of  the 


eastern  pylon, 

emhat  II.  and  Amenemhat  III.  did  some  work  there, 
and  the  Pharaohs  of  the  Thirteenth  and  Four- 
teenth Dynasties  presented  statues  and  tables  of 
offerings.  In  the  seventeenth  century  before  our  era 
it  was  still  intact,  when  Thothmes  I.,  enriched  as  he 
was   by    foreign    conquest,   resolved   to    transform   it. 


THE    TEMPLE   OF   KARNAK. 


In  front  of  the  temple,  as  it  then  existed,  he  first 
added  two  halls,  preceded  by  a  court  and  flanked  by 
separate  chapels ;  then  three  pylons  at  intervals,  one 
behind  the  other.  The  whole  presented  the  appear- 
ance of  a  rectangle  placed  crossways  against  another 
of  vast  dimensions.  Thothmes  II.  and  Ilatshepsut 
covered  the  walls  built  by 
their  father  with  bas-reliefs, 
but  added  little  to  his  work. 
Hatshepsut,  however,  in  order 
to  place  her  obelisks  between 
two  of  the  pylons,  broke 
down  part  of  the  southern 
wall  and  destroyed  sixteen  of 
the  columns  that  stood  there. 
Thothmes  III.  began  by  alter- 
ing certain  parts,  which  no 
doubt  he  considered  unworthy 
of  his  god :  the  first  pylon 
and  the  double  sanctuary, 
which  he  constructed  of  the 
red  granite  of  Syene  (Assuan). 
To  the  eastward  he  built 
some  chambers,  of  which  the 
most  important,  now^  called 
the  processional  hall,  served  during  processions  as 
a  station  and  resting-place  for  the  sacred  bark.  He 
surrounded  the  whole  with  a  stone  wall  and  excavated 
the  lake  on  which  the  sacred  barks  floated  on  feast 
days  ;  then,  with  a  sudden  change  of  axis,  he  erected 
two  pylons  facing  southwards.  in  doing  this  he 
destroyed  the  correct  proportions  which  up   to   that 


Fig.  88.  —  Plan  of  temple,  Edfu. 


92 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


iM^^^L 


time  had  existed  between  the  main  building  and  the 
facade.  The  outer  enclosure  was  too  wide  for  the 
first  pylon,  and  did  not  properly  accord  with  the  new. 
Amenhotep  III.  corrected  this  defect  ;  he  built  a 
sixth  pylon,  which  was  more  massive  and  therefore 

better  suited  to  the  facade. 
The  temple  might  now  have 
been  considered  complete  ;  it 
surpassed  in  size  and  bold- 
ness of  execution  anx'thing 
that  had  hitherto  been  at- 
tempted (fig.  89).  But  the 
Pharaohs  of  the  Nineteenth 
Dynasty  attempted  yet  more. 


^11113  i 


rrr^. ccocoooooo. 

I  '  L— I   'OCOCOOOOOO' 


mm 


They    only    constructed    one 
hypostyle    hall    (fig.  90)    and 


Fig.  89.— Plan  of  temple  of  Karnak  in  the  reign  of  Amenhotep  III. 


one  pylon,  but  the  hypostyle  is  170  feet  in  length 
by  329  feet  in  breadth.  In  the  centre  is  an  avenue 
of  twelve  campaniform  columns,  the  highest  that 
have  ever  been  employed  inside  a  building  ;  in  the 
side  aisles,  which  are  lower,  there  is  a  whole  regiment 
of  lotiform  columns,  122,  drawn  up  in  battle  array  of 
nine  files.     The  roof  of  the  central  portion  is  75  feet 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   KARNAK. 


93 


:^: 


c   c  ^  I 

c   .. 


.jj 


high,  while  the  pylon  stands  about  50  feet  higher 
still.  During  a  whole  century  three  Pharaohs  laboured 
to  bring  the  hypostyle  hall  to  perfection.  Rameses  I. 
conceived  the  plan,  Seti  1.  finished  the  building, 
Rameses  II.  almost  completed  the  decorations.  The 
Pharaohs  of  the  subsequent  dynasties  endeavoured 
to  secure  some  vacant  spaces  on  the  columns,  where 
they  could  inscribe  their  names  and  share  the  glory 
of  the  three  founders  ;  _ 
but  they  went  no  farther,  ri 
Arrested  at  this  point  ||;.: 
the  building  seemed  in-  r 
complete;  a  final  pylon  !}^^;:J^:  ;:^^  ^ 
and  a  colonnaded  court  iJ 
were     still    wanting.    I  ;  [ 

Nearly    three    centuries 
elapsed    before    any 
attempt    was    made    to   ';; 
supply    them.       Finally   ij: 
the    Bubastites    decided     - 
to  commence  the  colon-  "" 
nades,    but    their    work 
was    feeble     and     their 

resources  limited.  Taharka  the  Ethiopian  for  a  time 
imagined  that  he  was  capable  of  rivalling  his  great 
predecessors,  and  he  devised  a  hypostyle  hall  even 
larger  than  the  ancient  one.  But  his  measurements 
were  wrong;  the  columns  of  the  central  aisle  were 
placed  too  far  apart  to  support  a  stone  roof:  they 
support  nothing,  and  only  remain  to  bear  witness  to 
his  incompetency.  Eventually  the  Ptolemies,  con- 
forming   to    the    traditions    of   the    native    Pharaohs, 


Fig.  90. 


Plan  of  hypostyle  hall, 
Karnak. 


94 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


applied  themselves  to  the  work  ;  but  the  revolts  in 
Thebes  interrupted  their  projects  :  the  earthquake  of 
the  year  27  B.C.  overthrew  part  of 
the  temple,  and  the  pylon  remained 
for  ever  unfinished. 

The  history  of  Karnak  is  that  of 
other  great  Egyptian  temples.  By 
studying  them  on  the  spot  one 
learns  the  reason  of  the  irregularities 
that  are  to  be  found  in  them.  The 
plan  is  always  practically  the  same, 
and  their  growth  is  produced  in  the 
same  manner;  but  the  architects  did 
not  always  foresee  the  importance 
to  which  their  work  would  attain, 
and  the  site  chosen  by  them  in  some 
cases  did  not  admit  of  a  normal 
development.  At  Luxor  (fig.  91) 
the  building  progressed  methodically 
under  xAmenhotep  III.  and  .Seti  I., 
but  when  Rameses  II.  wished  to 
add  to  what  had  been  done  by  his 
predecessors,  an  easterly  bend  of 
the  river  obliged  him  to  deviate  in 
the  same  direction.  His  pylon  is 
not  parallel  with  the  boundary  wall 
of  the  last  court  of  Amenhotep  III., 
*^  '  "  and  his  colonnades  form   a  distinct 

F,g.9i.-Planofgreat   ^^    j^  ^^^j^j^  ^j^^  general   axis  of  the 

temple,  Luxor.  °  ^ 

previous  work.  At  Philae  (fig.  92) 
the  deviation  is  even  greater.  Not  only  is  the  larger 
pylon  out  of  line  with  the  smaller  one,  but  the  two 


IRREGULARITY    OF    PLAiST. 


9S 


southern  colonnades  diverge  considerably,  and  natur- 
ally they  do  not  accord  with  the  pylon.  This  is  not 
the  result  of  negligence  or  of  deliberate  intention. 
The  original  plan  was  as  regular  as  could  be  devised 
by  any  designer, 
however  devoted 
to  symmetry  ;  but 
it  could  not  be 
adapted  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the 
site,  and  the  archi- 
tects, therefore, 
could  not  do  other- 
wise tlian  make  the 
best  of  the  irregu- 
larities to  which 
they  were  con- 
demned by  the 
nature  of  the 
ground.  This 
necessity  often  in- 
spired them  in  the 
happiest  fashion. 
Philse  shows  with 
what  skill  they 
could  evolve 
beauty  and  charm  from  this  unavoidable  disorder. 

The  idea  of  rock-cut  temples  must  early  have 
occurred  to  the  Eg}ptians.  They  carved  out  the 
mansions  of  the  dead  in  the  mountain  side.  Why 
did  they  not  also  do  the  same  for  their  gods? 
Nevertheless,    the    earliest    temples    we    know    con- 


Fig.  92. — Plan  of  the  island  of  Phih 


96 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


structed  entirely  in  the  rock  do  not  date  back  farther 
than  the  early  reigns  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty. 
These  temples  are  generally  to  be  found  where  the 
belt  of  cultivated  land  is  narrowest,  near  Beni  Hasan, 
at  Gebel  Silsileh,  and  in  Nubia.  All  varieties  of  the 
temples  described  above  are  found  in  the  speos, 
more  or  less  modified  by  local  conditions.  The 
Speos  Artemidos  is  approached  by  a  pillared  portico, 
and  it  contains  only  a  square  chamber  w^ith  a  niche 

at  the  back  for  the  god- 
dess Pakhet.  At  Kalaat- 
Addah  (fig.  93)  a  narrow, 
roughly  worked  facade  (a) 
faces  the  river,  and  is 
reached  by  a  steep  flight 
of  steps;  immediately  be- 
hind this  is  a  hypostyle 
hall  flanked  by  two  re- 
cesses (c),  then  a  sanctuary 
of  two  stories  (d).  The 
chapel  of  Horemheb  (fig. 
94)  at  Gebel  Silsileh  is 
composed  of  a  gallery 
parallel  to  the  Nile,  resting  on  four  massive  pillars 
cut  out  of  the  living  rock  ;  and  of  a  chamber  opening 
out  of  the  gallery  at  right  angles.  At  Abu  Simbel 
the  entrance  to  the  temples  is  cut  actually  in  the 
face  of  the  cliff.  The  front  of  the  great  temple 
(fig.  95)  is  carved  to  resemble  a  sloping  pylon,  with 
a  cornice,  and  guarded,  as  usual,  by  four  colossal 
seated  figures  and  by  smaller  statues  ;  but  here  the 
colossi  are  almost  66  feet  high.      Inside  the  entrance 


Fig.  93. — Plan  of  speos,  Kalaat- 
Addah,  Nubic. 


ROCK-CUT   TEMPLES. 


97 


is  a  hall,  130  feet  long  by  60  feet  broad,  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  ordinary  peristyle.  Eight  Osiride 
statues  are  backed  by  as  many  columns,  and  appear 
to  be  supporting  that  part  of  the  mountain.  Beyond 
this  is  a  hypostyle  hall,  a  transverse  gallery  that 
isolates  the  sanctuary,  finally  the  sanctuary  itself 
between  the  chapels  and  the  other  members  of  the 
triad.  Eight  crypts  at  a  lower  level  than  the  central 
nave  branch  out  at  unequal  intervals  to  right  or  left 


^  (^  v,,,,,..V.,^v.vV^t^» 


fc;..^ 


D  EZ]  D 


Fig.  94. — Plan  of  specs,  Gebel  Silsilch. 


of  the  peristyle.  The  entire  area  from  the  threshold 
to  the  back  of  the  speos  measures   180  feet. 

The  speos  of  Hathor,  some  hundred  feet  to  the 
north,  is  of  smaller  dimensions.  The  facade  is 
adorned  with  standing  figures,  four  of  which  repre- 
sent Rameses,  and  two  his  wife  Nefertari.  There  is 
neither  peristyle  nor  crypt  (fig.  96),  and  the  chapels 
are  placed  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  transverse 
passage  instead  of  being  in  line  with  the  sanctuary  ; 
the  hypostyle  hall  has  six  Hathor  columns. 

Where  space  permitted,  only  a  portion  of  the 
temple  was  sunk  in  the  rock,  and  the  front  was 
7 


98 


RELIGIOUS    ARCHITFXTURE. 


constructed    of   blocks    of   stone    in    the    open,   thus 

forming  a  hemi-speos.     At   Derr  the   peristyle   only 

is  in  the  open  ;  while  at 
Beit  el  Wally  the  pylon 
and  court,  at  Gerf  Hossein 
and  Wady  es  Sabua  the 
p>'lon,  the  rectangular 
court,  and  the  hypostyle 
hall  are  all  outside.  The 
most  celebrated  hemi- 
speos  is  at  Deir  el  Bahari, 
in  the  Theban  necropolis, 
which  was  built  by  Queen 
Hatshepsut  as  her  funer- 
ary temple  (fig.  97).  The 
sanctuary  and  two  ac- 
companying chapels  were 

excavated  in  the  mountain  about  100  feet  above  the 

valley  level.     The  whole  temple  is  situated   on   the 

lower  slopes  of  a  great  bay  in 

the    mountains.      It    consists 

of  a  forecourt  with  colonnades 

at   the   far    end  to  right   and 

left.     A  broad  ramp  ascends 

from  the  middle  of  this  court 

to    the    second    court,    which 

also    has    colonnades    at    the 

west  end,  supported  on  square 

pillars      and      covered      with  Fig.  96. 

sculptured  scenes.     A  second 

ramp    leads    to    the    upper    terrace    and   colonnades, 

and  through  a  granite  gateway  w^e   reach  the  main 


Fig-  95- — Plan  of  the  Great  Speos, 
Abu  Simbel. 


-Speos    of    Hathor, 
Abu  Simbel. 


DEIR    EL   BAHARI. 


99 


b  o 


a  2. 

S  "2 


<  - 


D 

"•  '■ 

I 

o 

► ;  ' 

w 

.    >     .     >  .^..„ 

i_ 

> 

o 

t^ 

2 

lOO  RELIGIOUS  ARCHITECTURE. 

court.  Here,  on  the  left,  is  the  covered  court  where 
sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  deceased  queen,  and  on 
the  right  is  another  court,  in  which  stands  the  altar, 
one  of  the  very  (qw  found  m  situ  in  Egypt.  It  is  rect- 
angular^  made  of  fine  limestone,  and  measures  i6  feet 
by  13  feet.  A  flight  of  ten  steps  on  the  western  side 
leads  to  the  top,  which  is  5  feet  above  the  pavement, 
and  surmounted  by  a  heavy  cornice.  Here  we  have 
the  cliffs  towering  above  us,  and  we  enter  the  mountain 
itself,  passing  a  variety  of  chambers  and  recesses,  and 
finally  reach  the  sanctuary.  The  temple  is  surrounded 
by  a  retaining  wall,  finely  worked  in  limestone  blocks. 
The  colonnades  of  the  first  court  were  planted  with 
a  variety  of  trees,  of  which  vestiges  still  remain.*  At 
the  south-west  corner  a  shrine  of  Hathor  is  hewn  out 
of  the  rock  ;  in  front  of  it  are  two  colonnades,  the 
foremost  of  which  is  supported  on  sixteen-sided 
columns  and  square   Hathor-headed  columns. 

A  causeway  from  the  plain  and  an  avenue  of 
sphinxes  led  to  the  temple.  At  its  lower  end  stood 
Hatshepsut's  valley  temple. f  Never  finished,  it  was 
begun  on  the  same  plan  as  the  upper  temple.  An 
outside  wall  20  feet  in  height  encloses  an  upper  and 
lower  court,  divided  by  a  colonnaded  terrace.  The 
terraced  temple  was  regarded  as  showing  great 
originality,  and  it  was  not  till  1903  that  the  model 
that  inspired  it  was  excavated.  Close  to  the  temple 
of  Hatshepsut,  on  the  south  side,  is  a  smaller  temple 

*  E.  Naville,   The  Temple  of  Deir  el  Bahari.     Egypt    Exploration 
Fund. 

I,  i*  Earl  of  Carnarvon,  Five  Years'  Exploration,  at  Thebes.  Oxford 
University  Press. 


ELEVENTH   DYNASTY  TEMPLE,  DEIR  EL  BAHARL    lOI 

constructed  by  Mentuhotep  II.  of  the  Eleventh 
Dynasty.*  The  forecourt  does  not  exist,  but  we  have 
the  broad  ramp  flanked  by  colonnades  leading  up  to 
a  platform  artificially  shaped  and  squared.  Here  is 
the  entrance  to  the  temple,  a  granite  gateway  leading 
into  an  open  court,  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of 
150  octagonal  columns.  In  the  open  court  are  still 
the  remains  of  a  large  structure,  faced  with  limestone 
and  topped  by  a  heavy  cornice.  It  is  70  feet  square 
and  10  feet  high.  This  was  the  base  of  the  brick- 
built  pyramid,  which  the  Abbot  papyrus  refers  to 
as  existing  here.  It  did  not  contain  the  sepulchral 
chamber,  and  it  is  the  only  instance  known  of  a 
pyramid  enclosed  in  the  funerary  temple.  Another 
granite  doorway  at  the  back  of  the  covered  hall  leads 
into  an  open  columned  hall,  the  space  for  which  has 
been  hewn  out  of  the  cliff,  and  this  again  opened  into 
a  hypostyle  hall  of  eighty  columns. 

A  sloping  passage  from  the  open  court  leads  down- 
wards into  the  rock,  and  at  a  distance  of  500  feet 
opens  into  a  granite-lined  chamber  containing  an 
alabaster  shrine.  The  wooden  double  doors  and 
their  metal  fittings  have  disappeared,  but  here  we 
have  at  length  reached  the  sanctuary.  The  temple 
is  in  ruins  with  the  exception  of  the  rock-cut 
chambers.  The  work  is  very  fine,  and  the  rock  is 
everywhere  masked  with  blocks  of  sandstone  or  of 
limestone. 

The  polygonal  columns,  of  which  there  are  such 
extraordinary  numbers,    are   eight-sided,    instead    of 

*  E.  Naville,  The  Eleventh  Dynasty  Temple  at  Deir  cl  Bahari,  vol.  i. 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  1910. 


102 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


sixteen-sided,  as  in  the  neighbouring  temple.  During 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  the  building  was  invaded  by 
a  Pharaoh,  probably  Thothmes  III.,  who  constructed 
at  the  north  end  a  chapel  to  Hathor,  and  cut  a  shrine 
for  her  in  the  rock.  The  shrine  remained  forgotten 
and  untouched  for  many  centuries  till  its  discovery 
in  1906.  It  was  a 
vaulted  chamber, 
containing  the 
carved  figure  of  a 
cow,  the  sacred 
animal  of  the  god- 
dess Hathor.  Both 
cell  and  cow  have 
been  removed  to 
Cairo,  where  they  can  be  studied 
at  leisure  in  the  Museum. 

The  Egyptians  had  another 
type  of  temple  that  may  rank 
between  the  hemi-speos  and 
the  detached  temple.  This  is 
the  temple  that  backed  on 
to     the      mountains      without 


entermg  it. 


The  great  granite 


Fig.    98. — Plan    of    temple 
of  Seti  I.,  Abydos. 


temple  at  Gizeh  and  the  temple 
of  Seti  I.  at  Abydos  are  two  good  examples  of 
this  kind.  The  first  has  already  been  described 
(p.  73).  The  area  of  the  second  (fig.  98)  was  cut 
out  of  a  compact  low  belt  of  sand  which  divides 
the  desert  plain.  The  temple  was  buried  almost 
to  the  roof  on  the  west  and  north  sides,  the  walls 
scarcely  rose  above  the  ground  level,  and  the  stairs 


ABYDOS.  103 

that  led  to  the  roof  led  also  to  the  top  of  the  hill. 
The  front  of  the  temple  that  stood  out  clear  had 
nothing  peculiar  about  it — two  pylons,  two  courts, 
and  a  shallow  portico  with  square  pillars.  But 
from  this  point  the  arrangements  were  unusual. 
Instead  of  one  hypostyle  hall  there  were  two, 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  wall  with  seven 
doors  ;  neither  of^  them  have  a  central  nave,  and  the 
sanctuary  opens  immediately  on  to  the  second  of 
them.  J  he  sanctuary  is  of  the  usual  form,  oblong 
with  a  door  at  each  end  ;  but  the  small  chambers, 
which  in  other  instances  surround  it,  are  here  placed 
side  by  side  in  a  Hne  with  it,  two  to  the  right  and 
four  to  the  left.  Moreover,  they  have  corbelled 
vaulting,  and  their  only  means  of  lighting  is  by  the 
door.  Behind  the  sanctuary  we  find  similar  peculiari- 
ties. The  hypostyle  hall  abuts  on  the  end  wall,  and 
the  various  chambers  attached  to  it  are  irregularly 
disposed  to  right  and  left.  As  though  this  were 
not  enough,  an  entire  wing,  consisting  of  a  court, 
a  columned  hall,  some  passages  and  dark  recesses, 
stands  out  square  from  the  main  building  on  the  left 
flank,  with  nothing  to  balance  it  on  the  right.  These 
irregularities  are  explained  by  an  examination  of  the 
site.  Behind  the  hypostyle  hall  at  the  rear  the  hill 
is  very  shallow,  and  actually  slopes  away.  Had  the 
usual  plan  been  adopted,  the  cliff  must  have  been  cut 
away,  and  the  building  would  have  lost  the  charac- 
teristic desired  by  the  founder,  of  a  temple  built 
against  the  cliff.  Several  years  later  when  Rameses  II. 
built  a  memorial  temple  for  himself  a  few  hundred 
yards    to    the    north-west,   he    carefully    avoided    his 


104  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

father's  example  ;  his  temple,  built  on  the  summit 
of  the  hill,  had  ample  room,  and  the  usual  plan  was 
carried  out. 

Most  temples,  even  the  smallest,  are  surrounded  by 
a  wall  forming  a  quadrilateral  enclosure.  At  Medinet 
Habu  this  wall  is  of  sandstone,  low  and  crenellated  ; 
but  this  is  a  whim  which  is  in  accord  with  the  rest  of 
the  building.  Elsewhere  the  doorways  are  of  stone, 
and  the  walls  of  dried  brick  are  built  in  wavy  courses. 
The  enclosing  walls  were  not  intended  to  shut  off  the 
temple  or  to  conceal  from  the  eyes  of  the  profane 
the  ceremonies  carried  on  there,  but  they  marked  the 
limits  of  the  divine  house  and  served  at  need  to 
repulse  any  enemy  whose  cupidity  might  be  aroused 
by  the  accumulated  treasures  of  the  temple.  The 
avenues  of  sphinxes,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  Karnak, 
a  series  of  pylons  graduated  in  size,  led  from  the 
gates  of  the  enclosing  wall  to  the  various  entrances 
to  the  building,  and  they  also  formed  wide  roads  for 
triumphal  processions.  The  remainder  of  the  en- 
closure was  occupied  partly  by  stables,  cellars,  and 
the  granaries  of  the  priests,  and  partly  by  private 
dwellings.  As  in  Europe  in  case  of  foreign  invasion, 
the  population  crowded  round  the  churches  and 
monasteries,  so  in  Egypt  they  hurried  to  the  temples 
to  share  the  protection  afforded  the  god  by  the  terror 
of  his  name  and  the  strength  of  his  ramparts.  At 
first  a  wide  space  was  reserved  by  the  side  of  the 
walls  and  the  pylons,  but  as  the  population  steadily 
increased,  this  space  became  gradually  filled  up  with 
houses,  which  were  even  built  against  the  walls. 

In  the   course   of  centuries  these   houses   were   so 


PRECINCTS   AND   AVENUES.  IO5 

frequently  destroyed  and  rebuilt  that  many  of  the 
temples  were  at  last  partially  buried  in  the  accumula- 
tion of  rubbish,  and  were  much  lower  than  the 
surrounding  buildings.  Herodotus  mentions  this  fact 
with  reference  to  Bubastis,  and  an  examination  of 
the  various  sites  proves  that  the  same  thing  hap- 
pened with  many  of  them.  At  Ombos,  Edfu,  and 
Denderah,  the  only  wall  round  the  city  was  that  of 
the  god,  while  El  Kab  possessed  two  enclosing  walls, 
that  of  the  city  and  that  of  the  temple.  The  latter 
formed  a  keep  to  which  the  garrison  retired  as  a  last 
resort.  At  Memphis  and  at  Thebes  there  were  as 
many  keeps  as  temples  ;  but  at  Thebes  these  sacred 
fortresses,  at  first  separate  and  surrounded  by  their 
own  group  of  houses,  were  from  the  close  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  connected  with  each  other  by 
avenues  of  sphinxes.  The  most  usual  of  them  was 
the  andro-sphinx — the  human-headed  lion  ;  but  there 
was  also  the  crio-sphinx — the  lion  with  the  ram's 
head  (fig.  99)  ;  and  in  places  where  the  local  cult 
rendered  such  substitution  appropriate,  there  were 
kneeling  figures  of  rams  holding  a  figure  of  the 
sovereign  between  their  forelegs  (fig.  100).  The 
avenue  from  Luxor  to  Karnak  was  composed  of 
these  various  types.  This  road  is  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  in  length,  and  it  bends  in  various  directions ; 
but  this  must  not  be  considered  a  proof  that  the 
Egyptians  disliked  symmetry.  The  two  temple 
enclosures  were  not  orientated  in  the  same  direction, 
and  avenues  traced  perpendicularly  from  each  of 
them  could  never  have  met ;  they  had  to  be  turned 
from  their  original  direction.     We  may  conclude  by 


[06 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


saying  that  the  people  of  Thebes  saw  almost  as 
much  of  their  temples  as  we  see  at  the  present  day. 
The  sanctuary  and  its  immediate  surroundings  were 
closed  to  all  who  did  not  belong  to  the  highest  order 


Fig.  99. — Crio-sphinx  from  Wady  es  Sabiiah. 

of  the  priesthood  ;  but  they  had  access  to  the  en- 
closure, to  the  courts,  and  to  the  hypostyle  hall  ; 
some  were  even  allowed  to  penetrate  farther  into  the 


Fig.  100. — Couchant  ram,  with  statuette  of  royal  founder,  restored, 
avenue  of  sphinxes,  Karnak. 

temple,  according  to  their  rank  in  the  civil  or 
religious  hierarchy,  and  they  were  able  to  admire 
the  achievements  of  their  architects  almost  as  freely 
as  we  admire  them  to-day. 


DECORATION.  IO7 

3. DECORATION. 

Ancient  tradition  asserts  that  the  carh'est  Egyptian 
temples  contained  no  sculptured  figures,  no  inscrip- 
tions, no  material  symbols.  The  temple  of  Seneferu 
is  entirely  plain.  The  valley  temple  of  Khafra  is 
plain  with  the  exception  of  the  doorways  of  the 
fagade,  although  it  contained  magnificent  statues. 
The  upper  temple  also  appears  to  have  had  only  the 
same  scanty  decoration.  It  was  early  plundered,  and 
blocks  bearing  the  name  of  Khafra  were  utilised  in 
building  the  northern  temple  of  Lisht.  The  fine 
sculptures  and  painted  decoration  in  the  funerary 
temples  at  Abusir  show  how  completely  this  primitive 
simplicity  was  abandoned  by  the  time  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty. 

By  the  Middle  Kingdom  the  walls  were  covered 
with  scenes  and  inscriptions,  although  the  columns  as 
yet  bore  little  more  than  the  royal  cartouche.  During 
the  great  Theban  period  all  the  plain  surfaces,  pylons, 
wall  facings,  and  shafts  of  columns  were  covered  with 
scenes  and  texts.  Under  the  Ptolemies  and  the 
Cresars  these  inscriptions  were  so  crowded  that  the 
masonry  was  lost  sight  of  under  the  mass  of  orna- 
mentation with  which  it  was  covered.  A  very  cursory 
glance  is  sufficient  to  show  that  these  scenes  were 
arranged  with  much  care.  They  are  connected  and 
lead  on  from  one  to  another,  forming  a  mystic  volume 
where  the  official  relations  between  gods  and  men  are 
set  forth  for  those  capable  of  understanding  them. 
The  temple  was  built  as  an  image  of  the  world,  as  the 
Egyptians  imagined  it  to  be.    The  earth,  they  believed. 


I08 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


was  a  shallow  flat  plane  oblong  in  form.  The  sky 
stretched  over  it  was,  according  to  one  conception, 
like  an  immense   iron   ceiling,  according  to  another 

Figs.   loi   to  io6. — Dfxorative  Designs  from  Denderah. 


lOI. 


Fig.  I02. 

like  a  shallow  iron  vault.  As  it  could  not  remain  in 
position  without  some  support  the  idea  arose  that  it 
was  prevented  from  falling  by  four  props  or  gigantic 


Fig.  103 


pillars.  The  temple  pavement  was  the  natural  equi- 
valent of  the  inhabited  world.  The  four  corners  of 
the  chambers  represented  the  supports  ;   the   ceiling. 


Fig.  106. 

which  at  Abydos,  and  in  several  other  localities,  was 
vaulted,  but  which  was  generally  flat,  corresponded 
exactly  to  the  Egyptian  conception  of  the  sky.     Each 


DECORATION. 


09 


part  was  decorated  appropriately  to  its  signification. 
All  that  touched  the  ground  was  covered  with  vege- 
tation ;  the  columns  represented  the  plants  or  trees 
that  abound  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile.     The  base  of 
the    walls    was    decorated 
with  long  stems  of  papyrus 
or   lotus  (fig.   loi),  among 
which    cattle    were    occa- 
sionally depicted.    In  some 
cases  a  dado  had  a  charm- 
ing   design    of    groups 
river  plants  emerging  from 

the  water  (fig.  102),  or  again  we  find  full-blown 
Rowers  alternated  with  single  buds  (fig.  103)  or  con- 
nected by  cords  (fig.  104),  or  again  the  emblematic 
plants  that  symbolise  the  union  of  the  two  Egypts,  of 


r  Fig.  107. — Two  Nile-gods,  bearing 
lotus-flowers  and  libation  vases. 


Fig.  108.— Dado  decoration,  hall  of  Thothmes  III.,  Karnak. 

the  north  and  of  the  south,  under  one  Pharaoh  (fig.  105), 
birds  with  human  arms,  seated  in  adoration  over  the 
sign  used  to  denote  solemn  festivals,  or  crouching 
prisoners,  a  negro  and  an  Asiatic  bound  two  and  two 
to  a  stake  (fig.  106).  On  the  ground  level,  Niles,  both 
male   and  female,  either  kneel  (fig.  107)  or  advance 


I  lO 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


majestically  in  procession,  their  hands  full  of  fruit  and 
flowers.  These  are  the  nomes,  the  lakes  and  districts 
of  Egypt,  that  are  shown  bringing  their  produce  to 
the  god.  At  Karnak  in  one  instance  Thothmes  III. 
had  the  flowers,  plants,  and  animals  of  the  lands  con- 
quered by  him  sculptured  on  the  lower  courses  of  the 


kic-^ 


Fig.  109. — Ceiling  decoration,  from  tomb  of  Bakenrenf  (Bocchoris), 
Saqqara,  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty. 

walls  (fig.  108).  The  temple  ceilings  were  painted  dark 
blue  and  sprinkled  with  five-pointed  stars  painted 
yellow,  occasionally  interspersed  with  the  cartouches 
of  the  royal  founder.  Bands  of  hieroglyphs  at 
intervals  broke  the  monotony  of  this  Egyptian  night. 
The  vultures  of  Nekheb  and  Uazit,  goddesses  of  the 


DECORATION. 


II 


south  and  the  north,  armed  with  emblems  of  universal 
domination  (fig.  109),  hover  over  the  central  aisle  of  the 
hypostyle  hall  and  on  the  soffits  of  the  doors,  above 
the  head  of  the  king  as  he  passed  to  the  sanctuary. 
At    the    Ramesseum,    at    Edfu,    Philae,    Denderah, 


Fig.  no. — Zodiacal  circle  of  Denderah. 

Ombos,  and  Esneh,  the  very  depths  of  the  firmament 
appeared  to  open,  and  reveal  their  inhabitants  to  the 
eyes  of  the  faithful.  There  the  celestial  ocean  dis- 
played its  waters,  over  which  sailed  the  sun  and  moon, 
escorted  by  the  planets,  the  constellations  and  decani. 


112  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

while  the  genii  of  months  and  of  days  marched  in 
interminable  succession.  During  the  Ptolemaic  period, 
signs  of  the  zodiac,  copied  from  the  Greek,  are  found 
among  astronomical  figures  of  purely  Egyptian  origin 
(fig.  no).  The  decoration  of  the  architraves  that 
support  the  stone  roof  is  quite  independent  of  that  of 
the  roof  itself.  On  them  legends  are  inscribed  in 
immense  hieroglyphic  characters,  setting  forth  the 
beauties  of  the  temple,  the  names  of  the  royalties  who 
built  it,  and  the  name  of  the  deity  to  whom  it  was 
consecrated.  In  fact  the  ornamentation  of  the  base 
of  the  walls,  and  of  the  roof  is  confined  to  a  small 
number  of  subjects  which  are  always  the  same  ;  while 
the  most  important  and  most  varied  scenes  may  be 
said  to  be  placed  between  heaven  and  earth,  on  the 
walls  of  the  chambers  and  pylons. 

These  illustrate  the  official  relationships  between 
Egypt  and  its  gods.  The  common  folk  had  no  right 
to  communicate  directly  with  the  divinity.  For  them 
it  was  necessary  to  have  a  mediator,  who,  partaking 
both  of  the  human  and  the  divine  nature,  was  able  to 
comprehend  both  equally.  Thus  the  reigning  king, 
Son  of  the  Sun,  was  alone  of  sufificiently  lofty  descent 
to  behold  the  god,  to  serve  him,  and  speak  with  him 
face  to  face.  Sacrifices  could  only  be  offered  by  him, 
or  at  his  express  command  ;  offerings  for  the  dead 
were  supposed  to  pass  through  his  hands,  and  the 
family  invoked  his  name  {seten  de  Jiotep)  in  order 
that  they  might  reach  their  destination  in  the  next 
world.  Thus  the  king  is  depicted  everywhere  in  the 
temple,  standing,  sitting,  kneeling,  slaying  the  victim 
and  presenting  parts  of  it,  pouring  wine,  milk,  oil,  and 


RELIGIOUS   SCENES.  II 3 

burning  incense.  The  whole  of  mankind  is  acting 
through  him,  and  performing  through  him  its  duty  to 
the  immortals.  When  the  ceremony  performed  by 
him  demands  the  presence  of  several  people,  then  it 
is  only  the  assistants,  his  own  family  as  far  as  possible, 
who  are  seen  taking  part.  The  queen  standing  behind 
him,  as  Isis  stands  behind  Osiris,  has  her  hand  raised 
to  protect  him,  shakes  the  sistrum  or  beats  the 
tambourine  in  order  to  ward  off  evil  spirits  from  him, 
or  holds  the  bouquet,  or  the  libation  vase.  His 
eldest  son  tightens  the  net,  or  lassoes  the  bull,  or 
recites  the  prayer,  while  the  king  tenders  to  the 
god  everything  prescribed  by  the  ritual.  The  prince 
is  occasionally  replaced  by  a  priest,  but  no  other 
human  being  has  any  but  very  subordinate  parts. 
They  are  butchers,  or  servants,  they  drive  the  chariot, 
or  carry  the  palanquin  of  the  god.  The  god,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  not  always  alone.  Next  to  him  are 
his  wife  and  his  son,  then  the  divinities  of  adjacent 
nomes,  and  in  a  general  way  all  the  gods  of  Egypt. 
From  the  moment  that  the  temple  is  regarded  as  the 
image  of  the  world  it  should,  like  the  world,  contain 
all  the  gods,  great  and  small.  They  are  generally 
arranged  in  rows  behind  the  god  of  the  temple,  either 
sitting  or  standing,  and  partake  of  the  homage  offered 
to  him.  Sometimes,  how^ever,  they  claim  a  more 
active  part  in  the  ceremonies.  The  spirits  of  On, 
and  of  Khonsu  kneel  at  the  feet  of  the  sun  and 
acclaim  him.  Horus,  Set,  or  Thoth  conduct  the 
Pharaoh  to  his  father,  Amon-Ra,  or  with  him  they 
perform  the  ceremonies  usually  assigned  to  the  prince 
or  the  priest  ;  they  help  him  to  overthrow  the  victim, 


114  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

to  snare  the  birds  intended  for  sacrifice,  they  pour 
over  his  head  the  water  of  }'outh  and  of  life  that  will 
cleanse  him  from  all  impurities.  The  position  and 
functions  of  these  subordinate  gods  are  strictly  defined 
by  the  theology. 

The  sun  journeying  from  east  to  west,  as  stated 
in  the  texts,  cut  the  universe  into  two  worlds,  the 
north  and  the  south.  Like  the  universe  the  temple 
was  double  and  an  imaginary  line,  drawn  through 
the  axis  of  the  sanctuary,  divided  it  into  two  temples, 
the  temple  of  the  south  on  the  right,  and  the  temple 
of  the  north  on  the  left.  This  fiction  of  duality  was 
pushed  even  further  ;  each  chamber  was  divided  in 
imitation  of  the  temple  into  two  parts,  of  which  the 
right  was  that  of  the  south  and  the  left  of  the  north. 
In  order  to  be  complete  the  homage  of  the  king  must 
be  paid  both  in  the  temple  of  the  north  and  of  the 
south,  both  to  the  gods  of  the  north  and  of  the  south, 
with  the  produce  both  of  the  north  and  of  the  south. 
Thus  each  scene  must  be  represented  at  least  twice, 
on  a  wall  to  the  right  and  on  a  wall  to  the  left.  Amon 
on  the  right  receives  the  wheat,  the  wine,  and  the 
drink-offerings  of  the  south  ;  on  the  left  he  receives 
the  wheat,  the  wine,  and  the  drink-offerings  of  the 
north  ;  and  that  which  applies  to  Amon  applies 
equally  to  Mut,  Khonsu,  Mentu,  and  many  others. 
In  practice  the  want  of  space  prevented  this  being 
always  carried  out,  and  one  often  finds  a  single 
scene,  in  which  the  products  of  the  north  and  of  the 
south  are  placed  together  before  an  Amon  who  repre- 
sents in  himself  the  Amon  of  the  north  and  the  Amon 
of  the  south.     This  deviation  from  established  usage 


WALL   SCULPTURES.  II5 

is,  however,  exceptional,  and  symmetry  was  re-esta- 
blished as  soon  as  circumstances  permitted. 

During  Pharaonic  times  the  scenes  were  not  much 
crowded  together  ;  the  surface  to  be  covered  defined 
below  by  a  line  drawn  above  the  decoration  of  the 
dado,  is  bounded  above  by  the  usual  cornice,  or  by 
a  frieze  of  uraei,  of  bundles  of  lotus  arranged  side  by 
side,  of  the  royal  cartouches  with  their  divine  symbols 
(fig.  1 1 1),  or  of  emblems  connected  with  the  local  cult 
— Hathor-heads  for  instance  in  a  temple  of  Hathor — 
or  of  a  horizontal  line  of  dedicatory  inscription  deeply 
carved  in  fine  hieroglyphs.  The  space  thus  enclosed 
sometimes  formed  one 
single  register,  but  as  often 
it  was  divided  into  two 
registers,one  above  another; 

it    was    only    on    very    lofty       Fig.  U i. -Frieze  of  uraei  and 

cartouches. 

walls  that  this  number  was 

exceeded.  Figures  and  texts  were  widely  spaced, 
and  the  scenes  followed  each  other  almost  without 
definite  divisions  ;  it  was  left  to  the  spectator  to 
discover  the  beginning  and  the  end.  The  heads  of  the 
kings  were  actual  portraits  drawn  from  life,  and  for 
the  gods  also  their  features  were  copied  as  closely  as 
possible  ;  for  Pharaoh  being  the  son  of  the  gods,  the 
surest  method  of  obtaining  their  likeness  was  to 
model  it  on  the  portrait  of  the  king.  The  secondary 
figures  were  represented  with  equal  care,  but  where 
there  were  too  many  of  them  they  were  arranged  in 
superposed  rows  of  two  or  three,  of  which  the  total 
height  never  exceeded  that  of  the'  principal  person- 
ages.    The  offerings,  the  sceptres,  the  jewellery,  the 


Il6  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

vestments,  the  headdresses,  the  furniture,  and  all  the 
accessories  were  located  with  minute  regard  for 
elegance  and  accuracy.  The  colours  were  so  com- 
bined as  to  secure  one  dominant  tone  in  any  one  part 
of  the  building.  Thus  there  are  chambers  which 
might  accurately  be  styled  the  blue  hall,  the  red  hall, 
the  green  hall,  the  golden  hall.  So  much  for  the 
classical  periods. 

The  nearer  we  approach  to  later  times,  the  more 
crowded  the  scenes  become.  Under  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  they  are  so  numerous  that  it  was  only 
possible  to  arrange  them  on  the  wall  by  means  of 
four  (fig.  112),  five,  six,  or  even  eight  registers.  The 
principal  figures  seem  to  be  compressed  in  order  to 
save  space,  while  thousands  of  explanatory  hieroglyphs 
fill  up  the  gaps  between  them.  The  gods  and  kings 
are  no  longer  portraits  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  but 
conventional  types  without  life  or  vigour,  while, 
with  regard  to  the  secondary  personages  and  the 
accessories,  the  only  anxiety  was  to  crowd  them 
together  as  closely  as  possible.  This  was  not  owing 
to  lack  of  taste  ;  these  changes  were  due  to  the  pre- 
valence of  a  religious  idea,  the  sole  object  of  the 
decoration  was  not  merely  to  please  the  eye  ;  when 
applied  to  a  piece  of  furniture,  to  a  house,  a  temple,  or 
a  coffin,  it  possessed  magical  virtue,  of  which  every 
being  or  action  represented,  every  word  inscribed  or 
pronounced  at  the  time  of  consecration,  determined 
the  power  and  character.  These  scenes  were  there- 
fore amulets  as  well  as  decorations.  So  long  as  they 
lasted,  they  secured  to  the  god  the  benefit  of  the 
homage  rendered,  or  the  sacrifice  offered  by  the  king. 


ORDER   OF    WALL   SCENES. 


117 


and  they  confirmed  to  the  king,  living  or  dead,  the 
favour  granted  him  by  the  god  in  recompense  for  his 

W  m  ^  ^  'd  ■v?  vi  r^  t^  ^  t^  ^i  H  ij^¥^  t=^  tAii,^t-^4^i-^i-'^  ^^\ 


''''^fffBft'J 


^^1 


.iU 


Fig.  112. — Wall  of  a  chamber  at  Dendcrah,  to  show  the 
arrangement  of  the  tableaux. 

piety,   they  preserved   the  wall  on  which  they  were 
carved  from  destruction,  and  also  the  whole  area  of 


Il8  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  temple  to  which  the  wall  belonged.  During  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  it  was  supposed  that  one  or  two 
amulets  of  this  kind  were  sufficient  to  obtain  the 
desired  effect,  but  later  it  was  thought  advisable  to 
increase  the  number,  and  as  many  were  added  as 
could  find  room  on  the  walls.  One  medium-sized 
chamber  of  Edfu  or  Denderah  furnishes  more  material 
for  study  than  the  hypostyle  hall  of  Karnak,  and  the 
chapel  of  Antoninus  Pius  at  Philae,  had  it  been  com- 
pleted, would  have  contained  more  scenes  than  the 
sanctuary  at  Luxor  with  the  passages  surrounding  it. 
Observing  the  extraordinary  variety  of  subjects 
dealt  with,  one  is  tempted  to  think  that  the  decoration 
does  not  form  a  continuous  scheme  from  beginning 
to  end,  and  that,  while  several  series  are  doubtless 
developments  of  a  single  idea  either  historical  or 
religious,  others  are  merely  placed  together  without 
any  connecting  link.  On  each  face  of  a  pylon  at 
Luxor  and  the  Ramesseum  a  field  of  battle  is  repre- 
sented, on  which  one  can  almost  follow  the  struggle 
of  Rameses  II.  with  the  Kheti  day  by  day.  There 
we  see  the  royal  camp  surprised  just  as  the  Pharaoh 
had  arrived  before  Qodshu  (Kadesh),  the  camp  forced, 
then  the  defeat  of  the  barbarians,  their  flight,  the 
garrison  of  the  city  sall}ing  forth  to  their  relief,  and 
the  disasters  that  befell  the  S}Tian  prince  and  his 
generals.  Elsewhere  it  is  not  the  field  of  battle  that 
we  see,  but  the  sacrifice  of  human  life  that  marked 
the  close  of  each  campaign  ;  the  king  grasping  his 
prostrate  prisoners  by  the  hair  and  brandishing  his 
mace  as  though  about  to  kill  them  at  a  single  blow. 
At   Karnak,  along   the  outer  wall,   Seti   I.  is  shown 


ORDER   OF   WALL  SCENES.  119 

hunting  down  the  Bedouin  tribes  of  Sinai.  At 
Medinet  Habu  we  see  Rameses  III.  destroying  the 
fleet  of  the  peoples  of  the  sea,  or  he  is  counting  the 
severed  hands  of  the  Libyans  brought  him  as  trophies 
by  the  soldiery.  Then  without  any  attempt  at  transi- 
tion we  find  a  peaceful  scene — Pharaoh  pouring  out 
a  libation  of  perfumed  water  to  his  father  Amon.  It 
does  not  appear  possible  to  establish  any  connection 
between  these  scenes,  and  yet  one  is  a  necessary 
consequence  of  the  other  ;  if  the  god  had  not  granted 
victory  to  the  king,  the  king  would  not  in  turn  have 
performed  the  ceremonies  in  the  temple.  The 
sculptor  has  recorded  the  events  on  the  wall  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occurred.  The  victory,  then  the 
sacrifice  ;  the  benefits  bestowed  by  the  god,  and  then 
the  act  of  gratitude  performed  by  the  king.  If  we 
study  them  as  a  whole,  we  find  that  the  multitude  of 
episodes  are  linked  together  in  the  same  manner  ;  all 
the  scenes,  including  those  which  at  the  first  glance 
appear  most  unaccountable,  represent  various  stages 
in  one  single  action,  which  begins  at  the  entrance, 
and  develops  as  we  pass  through  the  courts  till  it 
ends  at  the  sanctuary.  Pharaoh  enters  the  temple. 
In  the  courts  his  eye  is  everywhere  met  by  records  of 
his  victories,  but  these  pictures  which  appear  intended 
solely  to  flatter  his  vanity  are  homage  to  the  god. 
This  is  so  well  understood  by  the  latter  that,  con- 
cealed in  his  shrine  and  surrounded  by  his  priests, 
he  forthwith  emerges  to  meet  the  king.  The  rites 
prescribed  in  this  case  are  recorded  on  the  walls  of 
the  hypostylc  hall  where  they  were  performed,  and 
then    the    king    and    the    god     together    sought    the 


I20  RELIGIOUS    ARCHITECTURE. 

sanctuary.  Arrived  at  the  door  that  divided  the 
public  part  from  the  mysterious  regions  of  the  temple, 
the  priestly  escort  halted,  and  the  Pharaoh,  passing 
the  threshold,  was  received  by  the  gods.  He  per- 
formed one  after  another  all  the  prescribed  religious 
exercises,  and  then,  having  acquired  merit,  and  with 
senses  refined  by  virtue  of  his  prayers,  he  ventured 
among  the  immortals  and  penetrated  at  length  into 
the  sanctuary,  where  his  divine  father  revealed  him- 
self to  him,  and  conversed  with  him  face  to  face. 
The  decorations  give  a  faithful  representation  of  this 
mystic  interview,  the  friendly  welcome  of  the  divinities, 
the  gestures  and  offerings  of  the  king,  the  vestments 
successively  laid  aside  and  donned  by  him,  the  crowns 
he  wore,  the  visions  he  recited  and  the  benefits 
resulting  from  them — all  these  are  engraved  on  the 
walls  in  their  respective  positions  ;  Pharaoh  and  his 
small  escort  are  placed  facing  the  door  at  the  farther 
end  with  their  backs  to  the  entrance  ;  while  the  gods, 
with  the  exception  of  those  escorting  the  king,  face 
the  entrance  door,  with  their  backs  to  the  sanctuary. 
Should  the  royal  memory  fail  during  the  ceremony, 
the  king  had  only  to  glance  at  the  walls  to  see  what 
was  next  to  be  done. 

This  was  not  all ;  each  part  of  the  temple  had  its 
individual  decoration  and  furniture.  The  walls  of 
the  pylons  w^ere  not  only  furnished  with  the  masts 
and  streamers  already  mentioned,  but  with  statues 
and  obelisks.  The  statues,  four  or  six  in  number, 
were  of  limestone,  granite,  or  sandstone  ;  they  repre- 
sented the  royal  founder,  and  were  sometimes  of 
colossal   size.      The   two    Memnons   seated    at    the 


OBELISKS.  121 

entrance  of  the  chapel  of  Amenhotep  III.  at  Thebes 
measure  about  50  feet  in  height.  The  colossus  of 
Rameses  III.  at  the  Ramesseum  stood  57  feet  high, 
and  that  at  Tanis  at  least  70  feet.  The  greater 
number  of  statues,  however,  did  not  exceed  20  feet. 
They  mounted  guard  infront  of  the  temple,  facing 
outwards  as  though  to  ward  off  any  approaching 
enemy.  The  obelisks  of  Karnak  are  almost  all 
swallowed  up  in  the  multitude  of  courts.  This 
circumstance  is  easily  explained.  Each  pylon,  with 
its  accompanying  obelisks,  was  originally  the  ex- 
ternal fagade,  and  was  in  turn  relegated  to  a  secondary 
position  by  the  additional  courts  of  successive 
Pharaohs.  The  proper  position  of  the  obelisks  is 
in  front  of  the  colossi,  on  each  side  of  the  main 
entrance.  They  are  always  in  pairs,  but  often  of 
unequal  height.  They  have  been  variously  explained 
as  being  emblems  of  Amon-Generator,  or  a  finger  of 
the  god,  or  a  ray  of  light.  Roughly  shaped  stone 
stelse,  bearing  the  name  of  the  deceased  king,  were 
placed  in  front  of  the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  the 
earliest  dynasties,  and  small  limestone  obelisks,  about 
3  feet  in  height,  are  found  in  tombs  as  early  as  the 
end  of  the  Third  Dynasty.  They  are  placed  to  right 
and  left  of  the  stela — that  is  to  say,  on  either  side  of 
the  door  that  leads  to  the  dwelling  of  the  dead.  In 
their  origin  *  they  may  have  been  models  of  the 
celebrated  benben  stone  of  Heliopolis,  the  earliest 
incarnation  of  the  sun  god  Ra,  and  closely  related  to 
the  baity le,  so  well  known  in  Syria  and  Palestine. 
Like  the  sphinx  and  the  statues  of  the  kings,  they 

*  English  Editor. 


122 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


were  regarded  as  possessing  magic 
powers  that  enabled  them  to  protect 
the  building  before  which  they  were 
placed  from  all  evil,  the  attacks  of 
mortal  enemy,  or  of  malignant  spirits. 
Erected  before  the  pylon  gates,  they 
were  made  of  granite,  and  their 
dimensions  are  considerable.  The 
shaft  of  the  obelisk  at  Heliopolis 
(fig.  113)  measures  68  feet,  and  those 
at  Luxor  are  respectively  yj  and 
75J  feet,  while  the  highest  known, 
that  of  Queen  Hatshepsut  at  Karnak, 
rises  to  a  height  of  109  feet.  To 
move  such  masses,  even  at  the  present 
time,  and  to  calibre  them  accurately, 
is  a  serious  task,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
realise  how  the  Egyptians  succeeded 
in  raising  them  with  nothing  more 
than  ropes  and  sacks  of  sand. 
Hatshepsut  boasts  that  her  obelisks 
were  quarried,  shaped,  transported, 
and  erected  within  seven  months,  and 
we  have  no  reason  to  doubt  her  word. 
Obelisks  were  almost  invariably 
square  in  section,  the  faces  slightly 
convex,  and  sloping  slightly  from  top 
to  bottom.  The  base  was  a  single 
square  block  inscribed  with  texts  or 
carved  in  high  relief  with  cynocephali 
adoring  the  sun.  The  point  was  carved 
into  a  pyramidion,  occasionally  covered  with  bronze 


Fig.  113.— Obelisk 
of  Senusert  I., 
Heliopolis. 


OBELISKS. 


123 


or  copper-gilt.  Scenes  of  offerings  to  Ra-Harmakhis, 
Horus,  Atum,  and  Amon  are  carved  on  the  sides  of 
the  pyramidion  and  on  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft. 
Below,  on  the  four  vertical  faces,  there  are  parallel 
lines  of  hieroglyphs  setting  forth  the  praises  of  the 
king,  and  sometimes  a  scene  of 
offering  at  the  bottom. 

This  is  the  usual  form  of  obelisk. 
Here  and  there  one  comes  across 
one  of  a  different  type.  That  at 
Begig,  in  the  Fayum,  is  rectangular 
in  section,  and  bluntly  rounded  at 
the  top  (fig.  114).  A  mortise  at 
the  summit  shows  that  it  was  sur- 
mounted by  some  metal  object, 
probably  a  hawk,  as  on  the  obelisk 
carved  on  one  of  the  votive  stelae 
in  the  Cairo  Museum.  This  form 
lasted  till  the  final  decay  of 
Egyptian  art.  One  has  been  found 
at  Axum,  in  the  middle  of  Ethiopia, 
dating  from  about  the  fourth 
century  of  our  era. 

Such  were  the  accessories  to  the 
decoration  of  the  pylon.  The  inner 
courts  and  hypostyle  halls  had  also 
colossi  of  their  own.  Some  of  these,  backed  on 
to  the  front  faces  of  the  pillars  or  walls,  were  only 
half  disengaged  from  the  masonry,  and  were  even 
built  up  with  it  in  courses.  They  represented  the 
Pharaoh  standing,  mummified,  and  bearing  the 
insignia  of  Osiris.      Others,   under   the    peristyle    at 


Fig.  114.— Obelisk  of 
Senusert  I.,  Begig 
Fayum. 


124  RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 

Luxor,  and  at  Karnak  between  each  column  of 
the  central  aisle,  are  also  statues  of  the  Pharaoh, 
but  here  he  is  Pharaoh  triumphant,  clad  in  royal 
apparel.  The  right  to  dedicate  a  statue  in  the  temple 
was  also  a  royal  prerogative,  and  although  the  king 
occasionally  permitted  some  favoured  person  to 
dedicate  theirs  by  the  side  of  his  own,  it  was  always 
a  special  favour,  and  the  inscription  on  such  statues 
mentions  that  it  was  placed  there  by  thi  king's  grace. 
Rarely  as  this  privilege  was  granted,  it  resulted  in  a 
vast  accumulation  of  votive  statues,  so  that  in  the 
course  of  centuries  the  courts  and  passages  of  some 

temples  were  crowded 
with  them.  At  Karnak 
the  sanctuary  enclosure 
was  furnished  outside 
with  a  kind  of  broad 
-Table  of  offerings,       bench     breast  -  hicrh,     on 

Karnak.  ,  •    i        i 

which  the  statues  were 
placed  with  their  backs  to  the  wall.  So  crowded 
was  the  temple,  that  at  last  it  was  found  absolutely 
necessary  to  get  rid  of  some  of  the  statues.  They 
were  temple  property,  and  could  not  be  disposed  of. 
In  the  course  of  the  third  century  B.C.  a  deep 
trench  was  dug  near  the  south  wall  of  the  hypostyle 
hall,  and  about  a  thousand  statues  were  buried. 
Here  they  remained  in  safety  till  the  beginning  of 
this  century,  when  M.  Legrain  discovered  them,  and 
they  are  now  ranged  in  numbers  in  the  Cairo 
Museum. 

Attached  to  each  statue  as  it  stood  in  the  sanctuary 
was  a  rectangular  table  of  offerings  (fig.  1 1  5)  formed 


TABLES   OF   OFFERINGS. 


125 


of  a  block  of  stone  with  a  projection  on  one  side  to 
form  a  spout,  and  the  upper  part  hollowed  more  or 
less  deeply.  On  it  are  often  carved  loaves,  joints  of 
beef,  libation  vases,  and  other  objects  usually  pre- 
sented to  the  deceased  or  to  the  gods.  The  tables  of 
offerings  of  King  Ameni  Entef  Amenemhat  at  Cairo 
consist  of  blocks  of  red  granite  more  than  3  feet  in 
length,  the  top  of  which  is  hollowed  into  cups  spaced 
at  regular  intervals,  each  cup-hole  being  reserved  for 
one  particular  offering.  There  was  a  cult  connected 
with  these  statues,  and  the  tables  were  altars  upon 
which  sacrificial  offerings  of  meat, 
cakes,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  the 
like  were  placed  during  the  per- 
formance of  the  ritual  which 
ensured  the  offerings  reaching  the 
deceased. 

The  sanctuary  and  the  surround- 
ing chambers  contained  the  objects    Fig.  116.— Limestone 
required  for   the  cult.     The  bases  ^  ^^^' 

of  altars  varied  in  shape,  some  square  and  massive, 
others  polygonal  or  cylindrical.  Some  of  these  last 
are  not  unlike  a  small  cannon,  which  is  the  name 
given  them  by  the  Arabs. 

A  perfect  specimen  was  discovered  at  Menshiyeh 
in  1884  (fig.  116).  It  is  of  white  limestone,  hard,  and 
polished  like  marble.  The  foot  is  a  very  long  cone 
with  no  ornament  except  a  torus  about  half  an  inch 
below  the  top.  Upon  this  the  large  hemispherical 
basin  is  fixed  into  a  square  mortise. 

The  naos  is  a  small  shrine  of  wood  or  stone 
(fig.   117)  in  which    the    spirit    of   the  deity  was    at 


126 


RELIGIOUS   ARCHITECTURE. 


all  times  expected  to  dwell,  and  which  on  certain 
festivals  contained  his  actual  image.  The  sacred 
barks  were  built  after  the  model  of  a  boat,  in  which 
the  sun  pursued  his  daily  course  round  the  world. 
In  the  centre  was  the  naos,  covered  with  a  veil  that 
prevented  spectators  beholding  what  was  within  it. 
The  crew  was  complete,  each   god   at  his  appointed 


Fig.  117. — Wooden  naos,  Turin  Museum. 


place,  the  pilot  at  the  helm,  the  look-out  at  the  prow, 
the  king  on  his  knees  before  the  door  of  the  naos. 

We  have  not  yet  found  any  of  the  statues  em- 
ployed at  the  ceremonies  in  honour  of  the  gods,  but 
we  know  their  appearance,  the  part  they  played,  and 
the  materials  of  which  they  were  made.  They  were 
animated,  and  in  addition  to  their  bodies  of  stone, 
metal,  or  wood,  they  possessed  a  soul,  procured  by 
magic    from    the   divinity    they   represented.      They 


MOVING   STATUES.  1 27 

spoke,  they  moved,  they  acted  — not  metaphorically, 
but  actually.  The  Pharaohs  undertook  nothing 
without  their  counsel.  They  addressed  them,  con- 
sulting them  as  to  affairs  of  state,  and  after  each 
question  they  showed  approval  by  bowing  the  head, 
or  if  the  reply  was  unfavourable  they  remained 
immovable.  The  stela  of  Bakhtan  (a  priestly  docu- 
ment of  Persian  or  Ptolemaic  times)  states  that  a 
statue  of  Khonsu  placed  its  hands  four  times  on  the 
neck  of  another  statue  in  order  to  transmit  to  it  the 
power  of  chasing  away  demons.  Hatshepsut  de- 
spatched an  expedition  to  Punt,  the  Land  of  incense, 
after  having  conversed  with  the  statue  of  Amon  in 
the  darkness  of  the  sanctuary.  In  theory  the  divine 
spirit  alone  was  supposed  to  produce  these  miracles, 
but  in  practice  the  speech  and  movement  were  the 
result  of  human  intervention.  Interminable  avenues 
of  sphinxes,  gigantic  obelisks,  massive  pylons,  halls  of 
a  hundred  columns,  mysterious  chambers  where  the 
day  never  penetrated — the  entire  Egyptian  temple 
was  built  to  serve  as  an  abode  for  an  articulated 
puppet  in  whose  name  a  priest  spoke,  and  of  which 
he  pulled  the  wires. 


CHAPTER    III. 

TOMBS. 

The  Egyptians  regarded  man  as  constituted  of 
various  entities,  each  of  which  possessed  its  own 
functions  and  life.  There  was  the  visible  form,  the 
body  to  which  the  ka  or  double  was  attached  during 
life.  The  ka  was  a  replica  of  the  body,  of  a  substance 
less  dense,  a  coloured  but  ethereal  projection  of  the 
individual :  the  ka  of  a  child  would  reproduce  the 
child,  that  of  a  woman  the  woman,  that  of  a  man 
the  man,  each  of  them  feature  for  feature.  Then 
there  was  the  ba^  the  soul  represented  in  the  form 
of  a  bird,  sometimes  with  a  human  head.  There 
was  also  the  kJiii  or  luminous,  and  one  or  more 
other  entities  perhaps  of  less  importance.  These 
elements  were  not  imperishable,  and  if  left  to  them- 
selves they  would  gradually  cease  to  exist,  and  the 
man  would  die  a  second  time — that  is  to  say,  he 
would  become  non-existent.  The  existence  of  the 
ka  depended  on  the  body,  and  to  save  that  from 
destruction  was  the  object  of  the  survivors.  By  the 
process  of  drying  and  embalming  the  body  they 
could  prolong  its  existence  for  ages,  while  by  means 
of  prayers  and  offerings  they  saved  the  double,  the 
soul,  and  the  luminous  from  the  second  death,  and 
procured  for  them    all    that    was   necessary  for  pro- 

128 


THE   GRAVE.  1 29 

longed  existence.  The  double  scarcely  quitted  the 
place  where  the  mummy  dwelt  ;  the  soul  and  the 
luDiinous  left  it  to  follow  the  gods,  but  they  always 
returned  to  it  as  a  traveller  returns  home. 

At  first  the  grave  was  a  mere  shallow  pit  in  which 
the  dead  was  laid  on  a  mat  surrounded  by  weapons, 
food,  pottery,  ornaments,  and  a  palette  on  which  to 
rub  the  paint  with  which  he  coloured  his  face.  The 
body  was  laid  on  the  left  side  in  a  crouching  attitude, 
with  the  head  either  to  the  north  or  the  south.  This 
earliest  form  of  grave  was  soon  elaborated,  and 
through  the  Thinite  period  we  can  trace  its  develop- 
ment. The  deep  rectangular  pit  roofed  with  timber 
and  mud,  then  brick-lined,  with  steps  leading  down 
to  it  ;  the  superstructure  of  mud  and  brick  carefully 
whitened  on  the  outside,  and  with  its  two  niches  on 
the  east  side  where  offerings  and  prayers  could  be 
made  for  the  dead.  Every  stage  can  be  traced  from 
the  primitive  grave  to  the  elaborate  tomb  of  the 
Old  Kingdom.  The  tomb  of  the  Egyptian  was  a 
dwelling-house,  his  eternal  house,  in  comparison  to 
which  earthly  houses  were  but  inns  for  temporary 
convenience.  The  arrangement  of  these  eter?ml 
houses  corresponded  faithfully  to  the  conception  held 
regarding  the  future  life.  They  contained  private 
apartments  for  the  soul,  where  after  the  day  of  the 
funeral  no  living  creature  could  enter  without  com^ 
mitting  sacrilege.  In  the  fully  equipped  tombs  halls 
of  audience  were  provided  for  the  doubh\\\'\\cv&  prie^tij 
and  friends  came  with  prayers  and  offerings,  while 
between  the  two  were  passages  of  various  length l-. 
The    arrangement    of    these    three    sections    varied 


130  TOMBS. 

greatly,  according  to  the  period,  the  locality,  the 
nature  of  the  site,  and  the  social  position  and  caprice 
of  the  individual.  The  part  accessible  to  the  public 
was  often  above  ground,  and  formed  a  separate 
building.  In  other  cases  it  was  excavated  in  the 
mountain  side  as  well  as  the  tomb  itself,  or  again 
the  sepulchral  chamber  with  the  passages  leading 
to  it  was  in  one  locality,  while  the  place  for  offering 
and  pra)xr  was  at  a  distance  on  the  plain.  But, 
however  varied  in  detail  and  grouping,  the  principle 
always  remains  the  same.  The  tomb  is  a  dwelling 
intended  to  promote  the  well-being  and  secure  the 
preservation  of  its  occupant. 

I. MASTABAS. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  graves  of  the 
pre-dynastic  and  archaic  period.  The  cemeteries 
of  that  early  period  abound  in  Lower  Nubia  and 
Upper  Egypt,  and  mastabas  of  the  Second  Dynasty 
have  been  found  as  far  north  as  Saqqara.  The  great 
mastabas  of  the  Memphite  period  are  found  at 
Memphis,  at  Medum,  and  between  Abu  Roash, 
and  Dahshur.  The  mastaba  (fig.  ii8)  is  a  quad- 
rangular building  which  from  a  distance  might  be 
mistaken  for  a  truncated  pyramid  ;  the  name  was 
applied  to  them  by  the  natives  on  account  of  their 
shape,  mastaba  being  the  Arabic  word  for  a  bench 
or  platform.  Many  of  these  mastabas  are  from 
30  to  40  feet  in  height,  150  feet  in  length,  and 
80  feet  in  width,  while  others  are  barely  10  feet 
high  or  15  feet  long.     The  sides  slope  symmetrically, 


THE   MASTABA.  I3I 

and  are  usually  quite  smooth,  but  sometimes  the 
courses  recede  one  above  another  like  a  series  of 
steps.  The  materials  employed  are  brick  or  stone. 
The  stone  is  always  limestone  worked  in  blocks 
about  32  inches  long,  20  inches  high,  and  24  inches 
wide.  Three  kinds  of  limestone  are  used  ;  for  the 
best  worked  tombs  the  fine  white  stone  from  Turah 
or  the  compact  silicious  stone  of  Saqqara,  and  for 
ordinary  tombs  the  marly  limestone  of  the  Libyan 
mountains.  This  last  contains  thin  layers  of  salt 
and  is  veined  with  crystallised  gypsum,  and  is  ex- 
ceedingly friable  and  unsuited  for  ornamentation. 
The  brick  is  merely 
sun-dried,  and  is  of 
two  kinds.  The 
most  ancient,  which 
fell  into  disuse  as 
early  as  the  Sixth 
Dynasty,  is  small  (8|  x  4^  x  5J  inches),  yellowish, 
and  made  of  sand  mixed  with  a  little  clay  and 
gravel.  The  other  kind  is  black,  compact,  well 
moulded,  made  of  mud  mixed  with  straw,  and  fairly 
large  (15  x  7  x  5J  inches).  The  working  of  the 
stone  inside  the  building  varies  according  to  the 
material  employed  by  the  architect.  Nine  times  out 
of  ten  it  is  only  the  outside  walls  of  the  stone  mastabas 
that  are  regularly  worked.  The  inside  is  constructed 
of  roughly  quarried  rubble,  fragments  of  limestone 
and  rubbish  roughly  laid  in  horizontal  courses 
embedded  in  mud,  or  even  piled  up  without  mortar 
of  any  kind.  The  brick  mastabas  are  almost  always 
unilorm  in  construction,  the  external   faces  carefully 


Fig.  1 18. — A  mastaba. 


132  TOMBS. 

built  with  mortar,  and  the  interstices  of  the  inner 
layers  filled  in  with  fine  sifted  sand. 

It  was  intended  that  the  mastaba  should  be  correctly 
orientated,  the  four  sides  to  the  four  cardinal  points, 
the  greater  axis  stretching  from  north  to  south  ;  but 
the  masons  did  not  trouble  to  find  the  exact  north, 
and  the  orientation  is  rarely  accurate.  At  Gizeh 
the  mastabas  are  arranged  according  to  a  symmetrical 
plan,  and  form  actual  streets  ;  at  Saqqara,  Abusir, 
and  Dahshur  they  are  flung  in  disorder  on  the  plain, 
in  some  places  crowded,  in  others  far  apart.  The 
modern  Mussulman  cemetery  at  Siut  shows  a  similar 
lack  of  arrangement,  and  furnishes  an  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  a  Memphite  necropolis  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  Old   Kingdom. 

An  unpaved  platform,  consisting  of  the  final  layer 
of  the  masonry,  forms  the  top  of  the  mastaba :  this 
is  thickly  strewn  with  pottery,  which  is  almost  buried 
in  the  earth  employed  in  the  building,  and  laid  most 
thickly  above  the  hollow  parts  of  the  interior.  The 
walls  are  bare,  the  doors  generally  face  east,  occasion- 
ally north  or  south,  but  never  west.  There  were  two 
of  these,  one  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  dead,  the 
other  accessible  to  the  living  ;  but  that  intended  for 
the  dead  was  merely  a  narrow  high  niche  in  the  east 
face,  near  the  north-east  angle.  Vertical  grooves 
were  worked  on  the  face  of  the  niche,  and  formed 
a  frame  and  a  narrow  sunk  panel.  Even  this  pretence 
of  a  means  of  entry  was  sometimes  omitted,  and  the 
soul  had  to  manage  as  best  it  might.  The  door  for 
the  living  was  of  more  or  less  importance,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  chamber  to  which  it  led.    In  more  than 


PLAN    OF    MASTABAS. 


133 


one  instance,  as  in  the  earliest  form  of  mastaba,  the 
door  and  chamber  are  combined  in  one  shallow  recess 
containing  a  stela  and  a  table  of  offerings  (fig.  119). 
This  is  occasionally  protected  by  a  wall  projecting 
from  the  face  of  the  mastaba,  which  forms  a  kind 
of  forecourt  opening  towards  the  north  ;  in  the  tomb 
of  Kaapir  the  court  is  square  (fig.  120),  in  that  of 
Neferhotep  at  Saqqara  it  is  of  irregular  form  (fig.  121). 

When     the     plan     of    the 


tomb  includes  one  or  more 
chambers,   the    door    is    in 


Fig.  119. — False  door  in  mastaba, 
from  Mariette's  Les  Mastabahs. 


Fig.  120. — Plan  of  forecourts, 
in  mastaba  of  Kaapir. 


the  centre  of  a  small  architectural  facade  (fig.  122) 
or  under  a  shallow  portico  of  two  square  pillars 
without  base  or  abacus  (fig.  123).  It  is  of  almost 
rudimentary  simplicity  —  the  two  door-jambs  are 
either  plain  or  have  bas-reliefs  representing  the 
deceased,  and  surmounted  by  a  cylindrical  drum 
carved  with  his  name  and  titles.  In  the  tomb  of 
Pohunika  at  Saqqara  the  door-jambs  represent  two 
pilasters  each  crowtied  with  two  lotus-flowers  in 
relief, 


134 


TOMBS. 


Fig.  121. 


Plan  of  forecourt,  mastaba  of 
Neferhotep. 


The  chapel  itself  was  generally  small,  and  out 
of  all  proportion  with  the  size  of  the  building  (fig. 
/'  -  ,..  ■  ^..^,     124),  but  there  was 

no  precise  rule  to 
determine  its  size. 
In  the  tomb  of  Ti 
(fig.  125)  there  is 
successivel57a  portico 
(a),  a  square  ante- 
chamber with  pillars 
(b),  a  passage  (c),  with  a  small  chamber  on  the  right 
(d)  opening  into  a  final  chamber  (e).  There  is  plenty 
of  space  for  more  than  one 
person  of  importance,  and 
the  inscriptions  show  that 
the  wife  of  Ti  reposed 
there  with  her  husband. 
The  tomb  was  not  so  com- 
plicated when  it  was  in- 
tended for  one  person  only. 
A  short  narrow  gallery  leads  to  an  oblong  chamiber, 
which  crosses  it  at   right   angles.     The  rear  wall  is 

often  straight,  and  the 
whole  resembles  a  well- 
balanced  hammer  (fig. 
126).  In  other  cases  the 
wall  is  recessed  opposite 
the  entrance,  and  gives 
the  form  of  a  cross  with 
the    head    considerably 


Fig.  122. — Door  in  facade  of 
mastaba. 


Fig.  123. — Portico  and  door,  from 
Marietta's  Les  Mastabahs. 


shortened  (fig.  127).    This  was  the  most  usual  arrange- 
ment, but   the  architect  was  at  liberty  to  disregard 


PLAN    OF    MASTABAS. 


135 


it  at  will.  One  chapel  consists  of  two  parallel 
galleries  connected  by  a  transverse  passage  (fig.  128). 
In  another  the  chamber  opens  at  one  corner  on  to  the 


Fig.  124. — Plan  of  cliapel  in  mastaba  of  Khabiusokari,  Fourth  Dynasty. 

gallery  (fig.  129)  ;  or  again  in  the  tomb  of  Ftahhotep 
the  available  area  was  hemmed  in  between  earlier 
constructions,  and  was  not  large  enough.     Here  the 


Fig.  125.— Plan  of 
chapel  in  mas- 
taba of  Ti,  Fifth 
Dynast}'. 


Fig.  126. — Plan  of  chapel 
in  mastaba  of  Shep- 
sesptah,  Fourth  Dy- 
nasty. 


Fig.  127.— Plan  ot 
chapel  in  mastaba 
of  Affi,  Saqqara, 
Fourth  Dynast}'. 


new  mastaba  was  combined  with  the  earlier  one  by 
making  the  entrance  common  to  both,  and  the  chapel 
of  the  one  was  enlarged  by  the  whole  of  the  space 
occupied  by  the  other  (fig.    130). 


36 


TOMBS. 


The  chapel  was  the  reception-room  of  the  double. 
There  the  relatives,  friends,  and  priests  celebrated  the 
funerary  sacrifices  on  the  days  prescribed  by  law,  "  at 
the  feasts  at  the  beginning  of  the  seasons,  at  the  feast 
of  Thoth,  on  the  first  day  of  the  year,  at  the  feast 

of  Uaga,  at  the  great  feast  of 
Sothis,  at  the  procession  of 
the  god  Min,  at  the  feast 
of  loaves,  at  the  feasts  of 
the  months,  the  half  months, 
and  of  the  days."  The 
offerings  were  deposited  in 
the  principal  hall  at  the 
foot  of  the  west  wall  at  the  precise  spot  where  the 
entrance  to  the  eternal  house  was  indicated.  At  first 
this  was  marked  by  an  actual  door,  framed  and 
decorated   like   the  ordinary  door  of  a  ho'ise.     As, 


Fig.  128. — Plan  of  chapel  in 
mastaba  of  Thenti  II., 
Saqqara,  Fourth  Dynast)-. 


Fig.  129. — Plan  of  chapel  in  mastaba  of  the  Red  Scribe,  Saqqara, 
Fourth  D^'nast}-. 


however,  it  was  to  remain  for  ever  closed  to  the  living 
it  was  not  long  before  this  door  was  walled  up  and 
a  mere  false  door  substituted  for  it.  A  hieroglyph 
inscription  carved  on  the  lintel  commemorated  the 
name  and  rank  of  the  occupant.  Representations 
of  him,  standing  or  seated,  were  carved  on  the  sides, 


THE    MASTABA    ClIAPKL. 


n 


while  a  scene  painted  or  carved  on  the  back  of  the 
recess  showed  him  seated  before  a  table  and  reaching 
out  his  hand  for  the  repast  provided  for  him.  A  flat 
table  of  offerings  fixed  in  the  floor  between  the  jambs 
of  the  false  door  received  the  offerings  of  food  and 
drink.     The  general  appearance  of  the  recess  is  that 


Fig.  130. — Plan  of  the  mastaba  of  Ptahhotep,  Saqqara,    Fifth  Dynasty. 


of  a  somewhat  narrow  doorway.  As  a  rule  it  was 
empty,  but  occasionall}'  it  contained  a  portrait  of  the 
dead  man,  either  the  head  and  shoulders,  or  a  com- 
plete statue  of  him  (fig.  131),  standing  with  one  foot 
forward  as  though  about  to  pass  the  gloomy  threshold 
of  his  tomb,  descend  the  steps  into  the  chapel  or  ka 


138 


TOMBS. 


fc.- 


Fig.   131.— Sttla  ill  tomb  ^'f  McrrLika,  a  fal-c  ■    _■  ■     -_'.i'_ 
statue  of  the  deceased,  Abusir,  Fifth  Dynasty 


chamber,  and  partake  of  the  heaped-up  offerings  of 
food  laid  on  the  table,  as  he  was  expected  to  do  as 


THE   STELA.  1 39 

soon  as  the  ceremonies  were  concluded,  and  his  living 
visitors  had  departed. 

Theoretically  these  offerings  should  have  been 
repeated  year  by  year  throughout  the  ages,  but  the 
Egyptians  soon  realised  that  this  could  not  be.  After 
two  or  three  generations  the  dead  of  bygone  times 
would  be  neglected  in  favour  of  others  more  recent. 
Even  when  they  were  endowed  with  pious  foundations 
whose  revenues  were  intended  to  provide  offerings 
and  priests  to  serve  them,  the  hour  of  oblivion  was 
only  deferred.  Sooner  or  later  the  double  would  be 
forced  to  search  for  food  among  the  town  refuse  and 
corrupt  filth  lying  about  on  the  ground. 

The  survivors  therefore  conceived  the  idea  of 
inscribing  on  the  stela  a  list  of  the  food  and 
drink  he  would  require,  with  an  invocation  to  the 
gods  of  the  dead,  Osiris  or  Anubis,  to  supply  him  with 
all  good  things  necessary.  Offerings  of  real  provisions 
were  not  necessary.  An)^  chance  stranger  in  times  to 
come  who  should  simply  repeat  the  magic  formula  of 
the  stela  aloud  would  thereby  secure  the  immediate 
enjoyment  by  the  deceased  of  the  good  things  there 
set  forth.  The  name  and  titles  of  the  deceased  in- 
scribed on  the  door-posts  and  lintels  were  no  mere 
epitaph  for  the  information  of  future  generations  ;  all 
the  details  given  as  to  the  name,  rank,  and  function 
of  the  deceased  were  intended  to  secure  the  continuity 
of  his  individuality  and  civil  status  in  the  life  beyond 
death.  In  order  to  ensure  that  the  funerary  offerings 
should  for  ever  retain  their  virtue  they  were  painted 
and  described  on  the  walls  of  the  chapel  (fig.  132). 
The  painted  or  sculptured  representations  of  persons 


140 


TOMBS. 


and  things  ensured  their  actual  possession  and  enjoy- 
ment by  the  individual  for  whose  benefit  they  were 


executed.  Thus  the  ka  saw  himself  depicted  on  the 
walls  eating  and  drinking,  and  he  ate  and  drank 
accordingly, 


PURPOSE  OF  WALL  PAINTINGS.  I4I 

This  idea  once  admitted,  many  further  develop- 
ments were  evolved  from  it.  Not  only  were  fictitious 
provisions  provided,^  but  the  domains  from  which  they 
were  supposed  to  come  were  also  added,  with  flocks, 
labourers,  and  slaves.  Was  it  a  question  of  how  to 
provide  food  for  all  eternity,  it  was  only  necessary 
to  draw  the  different  parts  of  an  ox  or  a  gazelle  ready 
prepared  for  the  butcher — the  shoulder,  the  haunch, 
the  ribs,  the  breast,  the  heart  and  liver  and  the  head  ; 
but  it  was  also  quite  easy  to  represent  the  history  of 
the  animal  from  a  very  early  period — its  birth,  its 
life  in  the  pastures,  then  the  slaughter-house,  the 
cutting  up  of  the  creature,  and  the  final  offering.  In 
the  sam.e  way  with  regard  to  cakes  or  loaves,  there 
was  no  difficulty  in  depicting  the  field  labour,  the 
sowing,  the  harvest,  beating  out  the  grain,  storing  it 
in  the  granary,  and  kneading  the  dough.  Clothing, 
ornaments,  and  furniture  afiforded  a  pretext  for  intro- 
ducing spinning  and  weaving,  gold-working  and 
joiner's  work.  The  master  is  represented  of  immense 
size,  out  of  'all  proportion  to  the  workpeople  and 
cattle.  Various  tactful  scenes  show  him  in  his 
funeral  barge  travelling  full  sail  (fig.  133)  to  the  other 
v/orld,  on  the  very  day  when  he  was  deposited  in  the 
depths  of  his  new  abode.  Elsewhere  he  is  seen  in  full 
activity  inspecting  his  imaginary  vassals  as  he  had 
formerly  inspected  the  real  ones  (fig.  134).  His 
ornaments  are  not  forgotten,  and  he  is  provided  with 
dancing  girls,  musicians,  or  his  favourite  gaming- 
board  at  which  he  is  seen  playing.  V^aried  as  these 
scenes  are,  they  are  not  arranged  without  method. 
They    all   converge    towards   the    false    door    that    is 


142 


TOMBS. 


supposed  to  communicate  with  the  tomb    chamber; 
those    nearest   the  door   represent   the  details   of  the 


Fig.  133.— Wall  painting,  funeral  voyage,   mastaba  of  Urkhuu, 
Gizeh,  Fourth  Dynasty. 

sacrifice  and  offerings,  followed  in  the  retrograde 
order  of  the  .sequence  of  events,  the  first  preliminaries 
being  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  stela.     At  the 


Fig.  134.— Wall  scene  from  mastaba  of  Ptahhotep,  Fifth  Dynasty. 

door  the  figure  of  the  occupant  appears  to  await  his 
visitors  and  bid  them  welcome.  There  is  an  infinite 
variety,  the  inscriptions  are  shortened  or  lengthened 


THE   SERDAR. 


143 


according  to  the  caprice  of  the  scribe,  the  false  door 
loses  its  architectural  character,  and  is  often  nothingr 
more  than  a  stone  of  medium  size,  a  stela  bearing 
the  name  and  protocol ^^f  the  occupant  ;  large  or 
small,  bare  or  richly  ornamented,  the  chapel  always 
remained  the  dining-room,  or  perhaps  rather  the 
buttery,  where  the  deceased  could  feed  when  hungry. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  wall  a  narrow  lofty  recess 
or  passage  is  concealed.  To  this  archaeologists  give 
the  name  of  serdab,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Arabs. 
The  greater  number  of  tombs 
have  only  one  of  these,  but  in 
some   instances   there   are  three 


35).      They   com- 


or  four  (fig, 

municate      neither     with     each 

other  nor  with  the  chapel,  and 

they  may  be  described  as  buried 

in  the  masonry  (fig.  136;  ;  safely 

walled  up  in  them  were  statues 

of  the  deceased,  sometimes  of  his 

wife  and  children.      If  there   is 

any  connection  with  the  outside 

world  it  is  by  means  of  an  opening  in  the  wall  a  man's 

height  from  the  floor  (fig.  137)  and  almost  too  small  for 

a  hand  to  be  inserted.     At  this  orifice  the  priests  would 

murmur  prayers  and  burn  incense  ;  the  double  was  at 

hand  to  profit  by  them,  and  his  statues  would  certainly 

benefit.     To   carry  on  existence  as  he  had  done  on 

earth  the  man  still  required  a  body,  but  the  corpse 

disfigured  by  the  process  of  embalming  was  only  an 

imperfect    representation    of   the   living   form.      The 

mumiTiy  was  alone  and  easily  destroyed,  it  might  be 


Fig.  135, — Plan  of  serdab 
in  mastaba  at  Gizeh, 
Fourth  Dynast}'. 


144 


TOMBS. 


burned,  or  dismembered  and  scattered  abroad.  If  it 
should  disappear  what  would  become  of  the  double  ? 
The  statues  hidden  in  the  serdab,  whether  of  stone, 
metal,  or  wood,  became  after  consecration  the  actual 
body.  By  the  piety  of  the  relatives  the  number  of 
these  ka  statues  was  multiplied,  and  thus  the  supports 
of  the  double  were  also  increased.  A  single  body 
gave  him  one  chance  of  prolonged  existence,  whereas 
twenty  bodies  gave  him  twenty  chances.  It  was  with 
similar  intention  that  statues  of  his  wife  and  children 
were  placed  with  that  of  the  deceased,  and  also  figures 


Fig.  136. — Plan  of  serdab  and 
chapel  in  mastaba  of  Ra- 
hotep  at  Saqqara,  Fourth 
Dynasty. 


Fig.  i37.--riaii  of  serdab 
and  chapel  in  mastaba  of 
Thenti  I.,  at  Saqqara, 
Fourth  Dynasty. 


of  his  servants  occupied  with  their  various  domestic 
duties,  grinding  corn,  kneading  bread,  or  sealing  up 
the  wine-jars.  The  figures  that  were  painted  on  the 
chapel  walls  were  detached  and  assumed  a  solid  form 
in  the  serdab. 

All  these  precautions  did  not  prevent  every  possible 
means  being  adopted  to  preserve  what  remained  of 
the  actual  body  from  decay  and  from  damage  by 
spoilers.  In  the  tomb  of  Ti  a  steep  passage-way 
from  the  centre  of  the  principal  chamber  leads  to  the 
vault,  but  this  is  very  exceptional.     The  entrance  to 


THE    VAULT. 


145 


the  vault  is  usually  a  vertical  shaft,  which  descends 
from  the  centre  of  the  platform  (f\g.  138),  or  more 
rarely  from  a  corner  of  the  chapel.  The  depth  varies 
from  10  to  100  feet,  the  shaft  is  carried  down  through 
the  masonry  into  the  rock,  when  it  opens  on  the 
south  side  into  a  corridor  so  low  that  it  is  impossible 
to  walk  upright.  Beyond  this  is  the  funeral  chamber, 
and  here  the  mummy  is 
concealed  in  a  massive  sar- 
cophagus of  white  limestone, 
red  granite,  or  basalt.  In 
rare  cases  it  is  inscribed 
with  the  name  and  titles  of  the  deceased, 
and  still  more  rarely  it  is  decorated  ; 
some  examples  are  known  carved  in 
imitation  of  a  house,  with  its  grooves 
on  the  facade,  its  doors,  and  windows. 
The  accessories  placed  in 
the  vault  are  very  simple  ; 
alabaster  vases  for  perfumes, 
bowls  into  which  the  priest 
poured  some  drops  of  the 
liquids  offered  to  the  dead 
man,  rough  pottery  jars  for 

water,  an  alabaster  or  wooden  head-rest,  and  a  votive 
offering  of  a  scribe's  palette.  The  body  having  been 
placed  in  the  sarcophagus  and  sealed  up,  the 
attendants  placed  joints  of  a  newly  sacrificed  ox 
or  gazelle  on  the  floor.  The  entrance  to  the  passage 
was  then  carefully  blocked  up,  and  the  shaft  filled  up 
with  fragments  of  stone  mixed  with  sand  and  earth. 
This  mixture,  when  freely  watered,  fc^rmed  an  almost 
10 


Fig.  138.— Section  showing 
shaft  and  vault  of  mastaba 
at  Gizeh,  Fourth  Dynast3'. 


146 


TOMBS. 


impenetrable  cement.  Tlie  body  thus  left  in  solitude 
henceforth  received  no  visit  except  from  its  soul,  its 
luDiiuous,  and  its  double.  The  double  could  leave  the 
chapel  and  come  and  go  at  pleasure,  while  the  soul 
from  time  to  time  abandoned  the  celestial  regions 
when  it  journe\'ed  with  the  gods,  and  spent  some 
hours  with  its  mummy. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Sixth 
Dynasty  the  walls  of  the  tomb 
chamber  are  bare.  Once  only 
did  IMariette  find  in  it  fragments 
of  inscriptions  belonging  to  the 
Book  of  the  Dead.  In  1881,  how- 
ever, I  found  tombs  at  Saqqara, 
where  the  sepulchral  chambers 
had  been  decorated  in  preference 
to  the  chapel.  They  were  built 
of  brick,  and  the  place  for  offer- 
ings was  merel}'a  niche  containing 
a  stela.  Inside,  the  shaft  was 
replaced  by  a  small  rectangular 
Fig.    139.— Section   of   court,    on    the    western    side    of 

mastaba,      Saqqara,         ,  .    ,  .  , 

Sixth  Dynasty.  ^^^ich      was      the      sarcophagus. 

Above  the  sarcophagus  there 
was  a  limestone  chamber  of  the  same  length  and 
breadth  as  the  sarcophagus,  and  about  3 J  feet  high, 
covered  with  a  flat  ceiling  of  stone  slabs.  x-\  niche 
was  constructed  at  the  end  or  to  the  right  to  take 
the  place  of  the  serdab.  Above  the  flat  roof  was 
a  vaulting,  with  a  radius  of  about  18  inches,  to 
take  off  the  weight  of  the  superincumbent  masonry, 
and  above  that  a2:ain  were  courses  of  bricks  carried 


SIXTH   DYNASTY   MASTABAS,  SAQQARA.        I47 


up  to  the  level  of  the  platform.  The  chamber 
occupies  about  two-thirds  of  the  cavity,  and  looks 
like  an  oven  with  the  mouth  open.  Sometimes  the 
chamber  was  only  completed  after  the  interment,  and 
the  stone  walls  actually  rest  on  the  cover  of  the 
sarcophagus  (fig.  1 39).  More  frequently  they  are  sup- 
ported on   brick  substructures,   and  the  sarcophagus 


p^  irir^nrfi  it  ii  nrii  ii  ii  ii  ii  inr 


Fig.  140. — Wall  painting  of  funerary  offerings,  from  mastaba  ot 
Nenka,  Saqqara,  Sixth  Dynast}'. 

could  be  opened  or  closed  at  will.  The  decoration, 
whether  painted  or  sculptured,  is  the  same  every- 
where. Each  wall  was  regarded  as  an  actual  house 
containing  the  objects  represented  or  enumerated  on 
it.  Care  was  taken,  therefore,  to  provide  a  large  door 
by  which  the  deceased  could  obtain  access  to  his 
property.  On  the  wall  to  the  left  he  found  a  pro- 
fusion of  food  (fig.  140),  and  also|the  table  of  offerings. 


U^  TOMBS. 

The  end  wall  provided  him  with  household  utensils, 
linen,  and  perfumes,  their  names  and  quantities  care- 
fully noted.  The  scenes  are  repetitions  of  those  in 
the  chapels.  They  have  been  removed  from  their 
original  position  and  transferred  to  the  tomb  chamber, 
thus  rendering  them  far  more  secure  than  they  could 
be  in  chambers  that  were  accessible  to  all  comers. 

The  stately  stone  mastabas  of  the  nobles  and 
officials  of  the  court  of  Khufu  cluster  near  his 
pyramid  at  Gizeh.  The  humbler  brick-built  mastabas 
of  less  important  folk  of  the  Fourth  and  Fifth 
Dynasties  are  near  by.  From  them,  recent  excava- 
tions by  Dr.  Reisner  have  brought  to  light  many  fine 
portrait  figures  hitherto  concealed  in  the  untouched 
serdabs.  Man}-  of  these  ka  statues  of  limestone, 
finely  painted,  are  now  in  Boston,  and  form  an 
interesting  study  of  men,  w-ith  their  wives  and 
children,  who  must  have  been  officially  connected 
with  the  building  of  the  great  pyramids. 

2. ROYAL    TOMBS    AND    PVRA^UDS. 

The  great  mastaba  at  Nagada  and  the  tombs 
at  Abydos  are  the  earliest  royal  tombs  known 
in  Egypt.  The  outer  walls  of  the  Xagada  tomb  are 
recessed  at  intervals  with  vertical  grooves  very  similar 
to  those  on  the  walls  of  early  Babylonian  buildings 
(fig.  141).  Similar  panelling  is  frequently  found  on 
mastabas  of  the  early  period,  and  of  the  Old  Kingdom 
(fig.  142). 

At  Abydos  there  is  a  series  of  royal  tombs  of  the 
First  and   Second    Dynasties.     They   consist  of  im- 


ISO  TOMBS. 

mense  rectangular  pits  from  lo  to  14  feet  deep,  and 
lined  with  bricks.  The  tomb  chamber  is  in  the 
centre,  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller  chambers 
which  contained  offerings  and  also  the  bodies  of 
servants,  whose  kas  would  accompany  their  master 
to  the  future  world.  The  tombs  vary  considerably. 
The  brick  walls  were  lined  with  wood  ;  at  first  the 
tomb  chamber  was  of  wood  or  of  brick,  and  floored 
with  wood.     A  stairway  (fig.  143)  was  soon  introduced 


Fig.  142. — Tomb  of  Senna,  with  panelled  east  wall,  Denderab, 
Sixth  Dyna&ty. 

on  the  north  side,  then  a  granite  floor  was  provided 
for  the  tomb  chamber,  and  b\'  the  time  of  the  Second 
Dynasty  there  is  a  tomb  chamber  built  of  hewn 
stone.  The  tomb  was  roofed  over  at  the  ground  level 
with  beams  of  wood  and  a  layer  of  straw.  Above 
this  sand  was  piled,  and  a  low  retaining  wall  some 
3  or  4  feet  high  shows  the  very  modest  height  of  the 
superstructure.  In  front  of  the  tomb  at  the  east  side 
(in  one  instance  on  the  south)  two  large  e^tone  stei?e 
were  erected  on  which  were  carved  in  hieroglyphs  the 


TOMIi   OF    KING   QA 


151 


name   of  the   king  (fig.  144).     It   was  here   that   the 
offerings  for  the  dead  were  brought  * 

The  royal  tomb  of  Bet  Khallaf,  built  by  Zeser  of 

*  W.  iM.  Flinders  Petrie,  Royal  Tombs,  vol.  i.,  ii. 


I  ;2 


TOMBS. 


Fig.  144.  — Stela  of  King  Perabsen, 
Ab\do?,  Second  Dynasty. 


the  Second  or  Third 
Dynast}',  has  deve- 
loped into  an  un- 
mistakable mastaba 
(fig.  145).  The  .super- 
structure is  of  crude 
brick,  and  rises  about 
^^  feet  above  the 
present  level  of  the 
desert.  It  measures 
280  feet  long  by  153 
feet  wide.  The  bricks 
employed  average 
11x5x3^  inches. 
The  outer  walls  are 
panelled  with  vertical 
grooves.  A  stairway 
(fig.  146),  which  turns 
at  right  angles  after 
perhaps  eight  steps, 
leads  down  to  the 
desert  level ;  at  this 
point  it  passes  through 
an  archway  and  opens 
on  a  sloping  passage 
covered  b}'  a  barrel 
roof  of  brick.  This 
continues  to  a  depth 
of  54  feet  below  the 
ground,  and  gives  ac- 
cess to  a  scries  of  gal- 
leries   and    chambers 


AFASTAHA    OF    BET    KHALLAF. 


153 


opening  to  right  and  left,  and  to  the  stone-lined  toinb 
chamber  (f).  The  passage  was  closed  at  five  separate 
points  by  large  slabs  of  limestone,  let  down  shafts 
constructed  for  the  purpose.  These  stones  increased 
in  size  as  they  ncared  the  chamber  entrance.  The 
largest  was  17  feet  in  height,  S  to  9  feet  in  width,  and 
2  feet  thick. 

The  tomb  chamber  had  been  rifled  in  Roman  times. 


Fig.  145.— Royal  tomb,  Bet  Khallaf,   superstructure.— f"^)'/)/*  Research 
AccoiDii,  J.  Garstang. 

but  broken  vessels  lay  there  in'  piles,  inscribed  with 
the  royal  name.  The  plunderers  had  dug  a  way  for 
themselves  ;  the  portcullises  were  undisturbed,  and 
the  stairway  was  crowded  with  alabaster  vases,  tables 
of  offerings,  and  wine-jars,  some  of  them  stamped  and 
sealed  with  the  royal  name  and  titles.  The  entrance 
at  the  top  had  been  carefully  bricked  up  and  con- 
cealed, and  had  successfully  guarded  its  secret.* 

*  J.  Garstang,  Mahasna  and  Bet  Khallaf. 


154 


TOMBS. 


With  the  second  tomb  built  b\-  King"  Zeser  we 
approach  \-et  nearer  to  the  type  of  the  true  pxTamid. 
The  great  step  pyramid  of  Saqqara  is  built  of  stone, 
and  has  the  appearance  of  six  superposed  mastabas 
(fig.  147).  It  is  not  accurately  orientated ;  the  northern 
face  deviates  4°  2i'E.  of  the  true  north.  The  base 
is  not  square,  but  a   rectangle  elongated   from  east  to 


Fig.  146. — Section  of 
lo^al  tomb  of  Bet 
KhsiXW:. ~  Egypt  R(. 
starch  Account,  J. 
Garstans:. 


west  measuring  395  x  351  feet.  It  is  196  feet  high. 
The  lowest  step,  with  its  sloping  sides,  is  37 J  feet 
high,  and  the  succeeding  steps  each  recede  about 
7  feet.  It  is  built  entirely  of  limestone  from  the 
surrounding  desert  plateau.  The  stone  is  small 
and  badly  quarried,  the  courses  are  concave,  on  the 
same  method  of  construction  as  that  employed  for 
quays  and  fortresses.  An  examination  of  the  walls 
where  they  are  broken  shows  that  the  external  face 


STEP  PYRAMID  OF  SAQQARA. 


^S 


of  each  step  has  two  coverings,  each  with  its  regular 
revetment.  The  building  forms  a  solid  mass,  and 
the  chambers  are  cut  out  in  the  rock  below  the 
pyramid.  The  most  important  of  the  four  entrances 
is  on  the  north  side,  and  the  passages  form  a  perfect 
labyrinth  dangerous  to  enter.  Colonnades,  galleries, 
chambers,  all  lead  to  a  central  pit,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  a  hiding-place  is  contrived,  no  doubt  intended 


v-»~  ,^ 


147. — Step  p3Tamid  of  Saqq? 


to  contain  the  most  valuable  objects  of  the  funerary 
outfit. 

The  stone  pyramid  of  Zowyet  el  Aryan  has  recently 
been  examined  by  Dr.  Reisner,  and  proves  to  be 
also  a  step  pyramid,  apparently  of  the  Third 
Dynasty. 

The  next  advance  we  note  in  this  development  of 
the  royal  tombs  is  the  pyramid  of  SeneferCi,  last 
Pharaoh  of  the  Third  Dynasty,  and  the  predecessor 
of  Khufu.  His  pyramid  is  at  Medum.  It  consists 
of  three  square  stages  with  sloping  sides  resembling 
three  mastabas  placed  one  above  another  (fig.  148). 
Like  the  step  pyramid  of  Saqqara,  it  is  a  cumulative 


156 


TOMBS. 


mastaba.  The  entrance  is  on  the  north,  about  53  feet 
abo\'e  the  sand  (fig.  149).  At  a  distance  of  60  feet  the 
passage  enters  the  rock.  At  174  feet  it  runs  level 
for  40  feet,  when  it  stops  and  rises  perpendicularly 
for  21  feet,  and  then  opens  on  the  floor  of  the  vault. 
A  set  of  beams  and  ropes  which  are  still  in  place 
above  the  opening  show  how  the  spoilers  drew  the 
sarcophagus  out  of  the  chamber  in  ancient  times. 
We  have  already  seen  (p.  72)  that  the  small  chapel 


Fig.  148. — Pyramid  of  RIedum. 

built   against  the  eastern  slope  of  the    pyramid    re- 
mains intact. 

Thus  by  the  time  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty  the  royal 
tomb,  like  the  mastaba,  consisted  of  three  parts,  the 
chapel,  the  passage,  and  the  vault,  but  on  a  special 
plan  of  which  the  ordinary  tomb  gives  no  idea. 
There  is  the  pyramid,  inside  which  is  the  sepulchral 
chamber  and  the  passages,  while  the  chapel  or  hall 
of  offerings  has  developed  into  an  actual  temple 
built  on  the  eastern  face  of  the  pyramid,  in  most 
cases  supplemented  by  the  valley  temple  at  the  foot  of 
the  hill. 


THE    BUILDING   OF   THE   PYRAMIDS.  157 

The  pyramid  and  upper  temple  were  surrounded 
by  a  high  stone  wall  enclosing  a  rectangular  temenos 
paved  with  large  stone  slabs.  The  door  was  always 
in  the  northern  face.  On  three  sides  of  the  pyramid 
long  galleries  were  dug  in  the  solid  rock  to  contain 
offerings  and  provisions  for  the  dead  king  and  the 
members  of  his  family. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  oldest  stone  pyramid  of  the 
northern  group  is  that  of  Zeser  at  Saqqara.  The 
latest  belong  to  the  Pharaohs  of  the  Thirteenth 
Dynasty.  The  construction  of  these  monuments  w'as 
therefore  a  continuous  work  that  lasted  for  thirteen 


Fig.  149. — Section  of  pas.sage  and  vault  in  pyramid  of  Mediim. 

or  fourteen  centuries  under  government  direction. 
The  granite,  basalt,  and  alabaster  required  for  the 
sarcophagus  and  for  various  details  of  the  construc- 
tion were  the  only  materials  of  which  the  use  and 
quantity  were  not  regulated  beforehand,  and  that  had 
to  be  brought  from  a  distance. 

In  order  to  procure  them  each  king  despatched 
one  of  the  principal  nobles  of  his  court  on  a  special 
mission  to  the  quarries  of  the  south,  and  the  speed 
with  which  he  procured  the  blocks  formed  a  powerful 
title  to  the  favour  of  the  sovereign.  The  rest  of  the 
material  did  not  involve  such  a  cost.  If  the  building 
was  of  brir.k,  the  bricks  were   moulded  on   the  spot 


158  TOMBS. 

with  earth  from  the  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 
If  of  stone  the  nearest  part  of  the  plateau  would 
furnish  abundance  of  marly  limestone.  For  the 
walls  of  the  chambers,  and  for  the  outside  facing, 
limestone  from  Turah  was  usually  employed,  and 
even  this  had  not  to  be  brought  across  the  Nile  for 
the  special  purpose.  At  Memphis  there  were  stores 
always  full,  that  supplied  the  stone  for  public  build- 
ings, and  consequently  for  the  royal  tombs.  The 
blocks  taken  from  these  reserve  stores  were  conveyed 
by  water  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  were  then  raised 
to  the  site  by  the  sloping  causeway.  The  internal 
arrangement  of  the  pyramids,  the  length  of  the 
galleries,  the  size  at  the  base,  and  the  height  are  very 
variable  ;  the  pyramid  of  Khufu  (Cheops)  rose  to  a 
height  of  about  481  feet  above  the  ground  ;  the 
smallest  was  less  than  30  feet.  It  is  not  easy  to 
realise  why  the  Pharaohs  should  build  monuments 
so  greatly  varying  in  dimension,  and  it  has  been 
imagined  that  the  size  of  the  building  was  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  time  devoted  to  building  it,  that  is 
to  say,  to  the  length  of  each  reign.  It  was  supposed 
that  as  soon  as  a  king  came  to  the  throne,  a  pyramid 
was  hastily  begun,  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  all  the 
essentials  of  a  tomb  ;  and  that  from  year  to  year  new 
courses  of  stone  would  be  added  round  the  original 
kernel  until  death  put  a  stop  for  ever  to  the  growth 
of  the  monument.  It  may  have  been  thus  in  certain 
instances,  but  in  most  the  facts  do  not  justify  this 
hypothesis.  The  smallest  of  the  pyramids  of  Saqqara 
is  that  of  Unas,  who  reigned  thirty  years,  while  the 
two  imposing  pyramids  of  Gizeh  were  built  by  Khufu 


THE  grp:at  pyramid. 


159 


and  Khafra,  who  respectively  governed  Egypt  for 
twenty-four  and  twenty-three  years.  Merenra,  who 
died  very  young,  has  a  pyramid  as  large  as  that  of 
Pepi  II.,  who  lived  to  be  more  than  ninety.  The 
plan  for  each  pyramid  was  generally  made  once  for 
all  by  the  architect  according  to  the  instructions 
received  by  him,  and  the  resources  placed  at  his 
disposal.  Once  begun,  the  work  was  carried  through 
without  any  additions  or  curtailment,  except  in  case 
of  accident. 

Like  the 
mastabas,  the 
pyramids  were 
supposed  to 
face  the  four 
cardinal  points, 
but  whether 


/ 


from 

or  negligence  the    ^^'8- 


50- 


-Section     of    the     great    pyramid. 
W.  M.  F.  Pelrie. 


greater  number 
are  not  accurately  orientated,  and  many  of  them  vary 
considerably  from  the  true  north.  Those  at  Gizeh, 
however,  are  very  accurate.  They  form  eight  groups 
stretching  from  north  to  south  on  the  edge  of  the 
Libyan  desert — from  Abu  Roash  to  the  Fayum,  by 
Gizeh,  Zowyet  el  Ar}^an,  Abusir,  Saqqara,  Dahshur, 
and  Lisht.  The  group  at  Gizeh  consists  of  nine, 
including  the  pyramids  of  Khufu,  Khafra,  and  Men- 
kaura,  which  were  anciently  reckoned  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  The  ground  on  which  Khufu 
built  his  pyramid  was  very  irregular.  A  small  rocky 
mound  (fig.  150)  was  roughly  cut  and  enclosed  in  the 


l60  TOMBS. 

masonry  of  the  foundations,  and  a  sloping  shaft  lead- 
incr  to  an  underground  chamber  shows  siorns  of  the 
existence  of  an  caih'er  tomb.  The  original  height  of 
the  pyramid  was  481  feet,  and  the  width  of  the  base 
755  feet,  but  the  ravages  of  time  have  reduced  these 
measurements  to  454  feet  and  750  feet  respectively. 
Until  the  Arab  conquest  it  was  cased  with  fine  lime- 
stone, to  which  the  action  of  the  air  had  given  a 
variety  of  colours.  The  blocks  were  so  skilfully  joined 
that  they  appeared  to  be  one  single  piece  from  top 
to  bottom.  The  casing  was  begun  at  the  top,  the 
cap  was  first  placed  in  position,  then  the  courses  were 
added  in  succession  till  the  base  was  reached.  The 
whole  of  the  interior  was  arranged  with  the  object  of 
concealing  the  exact  position  of  the  sarcophagus,  and 
to  baffle  any  marauders  who  b\'  chance  or  by  perse- 
verance had  succeeded  in  discovering  the  entrance. 
The  first  difficult}- was  to  discover  the  entrance  under 
the  facing  stones  that  masked  it.  It  was  nearly  in  the 
middle  of  the  north  face  at  the  level  of  the  eighteenth 
course  of  masonry  about  45  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  was  closed  by  a  single  block  balanced  on  a  pivot. 
This  having  been  swung  aside  gave  access  to  a  sloping 
passage  47'6  inches  high  and  41'2  inches  wide  which 
descended  a  distance  of  317  feet,  passing  an  un- 
finished chamber  and  ending  60  feet  beyond  in  a 
cul-de-sac.  Here  was  the  initial  disappointment. 
Careful  examination,  however,  combined  with  deter- 
mination not  to  be  foiled,  would  be  rewarded  by 
discovering  in  the  roof,  62  feet  from  the  entrance,  a 
block  of  granite  that  contrasted  with  those  surround- 
ing   it.      It  was   so   hard    that    the    marauders   having 


THE   PYRAMID   OF   KHUPU.  l6l 

exhausted  themselves  in  trying  to  break  or  displace 
it,  adopted  the  method  of  working  a  way  for  them- 
selves through  the  softer  stone  that  surrounded  it. 
This  obstacle  surmounted,  they  found  themselves  in 
an  ascending  corridor  that  diverged  from  the  first 
at  an  angle  of  120',  and  which  divides  into  two 
branches.  One  extends  horizontally  towards  the  centre 
of  the  pyramid,  and  ends  in  a  granite  chamber  with 
a  pointed  roof,  called  without  any  sufficient  reason 
"the  Queen's  Chamber."  The  other,  which  continues 
to  ascend,  changes  its  character  and  appearance.  It  is 
now  a  gallery,  148  feet  long  and  28  feet  high,  built  of 
the  fine  hard  stone  of  the  Mokattam  mountains,  so 
polished  and  so  finely  adjusted  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  insert  ''  a  needle  or  even  a  hair  "  between 
the  joints.  The  lower  courses  are  perpendicular,  but 
the  seven  upper  courses  are  corbelled  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  top  courses  are  only  21  inches  apart. 
A  new  obstacle  was  encountered  at  the  end,  where 
the  corridor  that  led  to  the  tomb  chamber  was 
closed  by  a  single  slab  of  granite  ;  to  this  succeeded 
a  small  vestibule  divided  into  equal  sections  by  four 
portcullises.  These  have  been  so  completely  de- 
molished that  no  fragment  of  them  now  exists,  but 
they  were  probably  of  granite.  The  royal  sepulchre 
is  a  granite  chamber  with  a  flat  roof  19  feet  high, 
34  feet  in  length,  and  17  feet  wide.  Here  there  is  no 
figure  or  inscription  to  be  seen,  nothing  but  a  granite 
sarcophagus,  mutilated  and  without  its  cover. 

Such  were  the  precautions  taken  against  the  depre- 
dations  of  man,  and  the  event   proved   them  to   be 
efficacious,  for  the  pyramid  long  guarded  the  deposit 
1 1 


102  TOMBS. 

entrusted  to  it.  But  the  actual  weight  of  the  materials 
was  a  very  serious  danger,  and  in  order  to  save  the 
central  chamber  from  being  crushed  by  the  300  feet 
of  stone  that  surmounted  it,  five  low  hollow  spaces 
were  left  in  the  masonry  above.  The  upper  one  of 
these  has  a  pointed  roof  formed  of  two  rows  of  stoiie 
slabs  resting  against  each  other  at  the  top.  Thanks 
to  this  contrivance,  the  central  pressure  is  thrown 
almost  entirely  on  to  the  lateral  faces  and  the  tomb 
chamber  is  relieved  ;  none  of  the  stones  of  which  it 
is  formed  are  crushed,  although  some  have  been  dis- 
placed, probably  by  earthquakes. 

The  interior  arrangements  of  the  pyramids  of 
Khafra  and  Menkaura  differ  entirely  from  those 
of  Khufu.  That  of  Khafra  (Khephren)  has  two 
entrances  both  on  the  north  side,  one  from  the  plat- 
form before  the  pyramid,  the  other  50  yards  above 
the  ground.  On  the  east  side  are  the  vestiges  of  the 
funerary  temple,  but  at  the  present  day  the  glory  of 
the  pyramid  is  its  valley  temple,  the  great  granite 
temple  with  its  adjacent  sphinx. 

The  pyramid  of  Menkaura  (Mycerinus)  has  retained 
part  of  its  casing,  the  lower  part  of  which  was  of  red 
granite  and  the  upper  part  of  limestone.  The  entrance 
gallery  descends  at  an  angle  of  26°,  and  soon  enters 
the  rock.  The  first  chamber  to  which  it  leads  is 
decorated  with  panels  carved  in  the  stone,  and  the 
exit  is  closed  by  three  portcullises  of  granite.  The 
second  chamber  appears  to  be  unfinished  ;  but  this 
wa=  merely  an  artifice  intended  to  mislead  robbers. 
A  passage  concealed  with  great  care  in  the  floor 
gave  access    to  the    tomb   chamber.     There  lay  the 


THE   PYRAMID   OF   UNAS.  163 

mummy  in  a  sarcophagus  of  sculptured  basalt,  which 
was  still  intact  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Carried  off  by  Vyse,  it  foundered  off  the  coast 
of  Spain  with  the  vessel  bearing  it  to  England.  The 
valley  temple  of  this  pyramid  was  left  unfinished, 
but  magnificent  statuary  placed  there  in  readiness 
shows  that  the  king's  death  or  some  other  misfortune 
alone  prevented  the  erection  of  another  fine  building 
in  keeping  with  that  of  Khafra. 

The  pyramids    of   Sahu-ra,  of   Ne-user-ra,  and  of 
Nefer-ar-ka-ra,    of     the     Fifth 
Dynasty,  are  at  Abiisi 
have  recently  beei 


i-j 


.busir.     They     m^^m^f^^ 
:n   excavated     y    s- f  •^    b  .   f,— 'i 


Fig.  151.— Plan  and  ^section  ol'  the  pyramid 
of  Unas. 

by     Dr.     Borchardt     with     their 
temples  and  valley.     The  temple     | 
of  Nefer-ar-ka-ra,  begun  in  stone,  " 

was  hurriedly  finished  in  brick  ;  but  the  valley  temple 
of    Ne-user-ra    contained  columned    halls  filled   with 
sculpture  and  statuary.     His  great  causeway,  which 
formed    the    approach    to    the    pyramid    and    upper 
temple,  consisted  of  a  narrow  covered  passage  lined 
with  fine  limestone  and  exquisitely  sculptured.     The 
valley  temple   of  Sahu-ra  contained  beautiful  speci- 
mens  of  palm   and  pap}^rus   columns,  while  a   drain 
of  hammered  copper  about  450  yards  long  carried  off 
K  the  rain  water  from  the   upper  temple.     The  group 
W    pyramids,    with    their    temples,    causewa}s,    and 
\ 
\ 


64 


TOMBS. 


valley  temples,  fronted  by  landing-stages,  must  have 
presented  a  magnificent  appearance  to  visitors 
arriving  by  water. 

IMost  of  the  pyramids  of  the  Fifth  and  Sixth 
Dynasties  at  Saqqara  were  built  on  one  plan, 
and  are  only  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their 
size.  In  the  pyramid  of  Unas  (fig.  151)  the  entrance 
(a)  is  just  below  the  first  visible  course  of  stone 
about  the  centre  of  the  north  face,  and  the  passage 

(b)  descends  by  a  gentle 
slope  between  limestone 
walls  ;  it  was  blocked  at 
intervals  all  along  its  length 
by  huge  stones  that  had 
to  be  broken  in  order  to 
reach  the  first  chamber  (c). 
After  leaving  this  chamber 
the  limestone  gallery  con- 
tinued some  distance  far- 
ther, where  for  a  time  it 
gives  place  to  walls,  floor, 
and  ceiling  of  polished 
syenite,  after  which  the  limestone  reappears,  and  the 
gallery  opens  on  to  the  vestibule  (e).  The  portion 
lined  with  granite  contains  three  portcullises  of  the 
same  material  at  intervals  of  2  or  2 A  feet  (d).  Above 
each  of  these  there  is  a  hollow  that  contained  the 
portcullises  upheld  by  supports  until  they  should 
be  required  (fig.  152).  After,  the  mummy  had  been 
laid  in  place,  the  workmen,  when  departin 
remove  the  supports,  and  the  three  portcullis 
falling  into   their   places,  cut   off  all  commun' 


Fig.  152.— Portcullis  and   pas- 
sage, pyramid  of  Unas. 


g,  would 


THE    rVRAMID   OF    UNAS. 


i6s 


with  the  outside  world.  The  vestibule  was  flanked 
on  the  east  by  a  serdab  with  a  flat  roof,  divided  into 
three  niches  and  choked  with  stone  chips  hastily 
swept  there  by  the  slaves  when  they  cleaned  out  the 
chambers  to  receive  the  mummy.  The  pyramid  of 
Unas  has  preserved  all  these.  In  the  pyramids  of 
Teti  and  Merenra  the  separating  walls  were  very 
wisely  done  away  with  in  ancient  times,  and  no  trace 
of  them  remains  beyond  a  line  of  attachment,  and 
a  lighter  colour  on  the  wall  in  the  places  they 
originally  covered.     The   tomb    chamber  (g)  was  to 


Fig.  153. — Section  oftlic  pyramid  of  L'lia 


the  west  of  the  vestibule.  The  sarcophagus  lay 
along  the  western  wall,  the  feet  to  the  south,  the 
head  to  the  north  (h).  The  ceiling  of  the  two 
principal  chambers  is  pointed.  It  consists  of  large 
limestone  beams,  which  lean  aq:ainst  each  other  at 
the  top,  and  at  the  lower  end  rest  on  a  low  bench  (l), 
which  is  carried  round  outside  the  walls.  The  first 
pair  of  beams  is  surmounted  by  a  second,  and  this 
again  by  a  third,  and  the  whole  (I)  forms  an  effectual 
protection    for    the    vestibule    and    tomb     chamber 

(fig-   153). 

The  pyramids  of  Gizeh  are  the  work  of  some  of 


l66  TOMBS. 

the  Pharaohs  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  and  the 
pyramids  of  Abiisir  of  the  Pharaohs  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty.  The  five  pyramids  of  Saqqara,  which  are 
uniform  in  plan,  belong  to  Unas  of  the  Fifth,  and 
his  four  successors  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty,  Teti, 
Pepi  I.,  Merenra,  and  Pepi  II.  They  are  contem- 
porary with  the  mastabas  with  painted  tomb  chambers 
already  described.  It  is  not  surprising  therefore  to 
find  inscriptions  and  decorations  here  also.  Every- 
where the  ceilings  are  strewn  wMth  stars  and  decorated 
in  imitation  of  the  sky  at  night  ;  but  the  remainder 
of  the  decoration  is  very  simple.  In  the  pyramid 
of  Unas,  where  decoration  plays  a  more  important 
part,  it  is  only  to  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  funerary 
chamber.  The  wall  near  the  sarcophagus  is  faced 
with  limestone,  and  engraved  to  represent  the  great 
monumental  doors  by  w^hich  the  deceased  was 
supposed  to  enter  his  store-house  of  provisions. 
Figures  of  men  and  animals  and  scenes  of  daily 
life  and  sacrificial  details  are  not  represented  there — 
nor  would  they  be  in  place.  They  were  to  be  found 
in  the  places  where  the  double  led  its  public  life, 
and  where  visitors  actually  performed  the  sacrificial 
rites :  the  passages  and  tomb  chamber  where  the 
soul  alone  could  enter  could  admit  no  other  orna- 
mentation than  that  which  dealt  with  the  life  of 
the  soul.  The  texts  are  of  two  kinds.  The  least 
numerous  concern  the  provision  for  the  double,  and 
are  a  literal  transcription  of  the  formulae  by  which 
the  priest  ensured  that  every  object  should  pass 
from  this  world  to  the  next  :  this  wvis  the  final 
resource    for    the   double    in    case    the    real    sacrifices 


PYRAMID   TEXTS    OF   THE   OLD    KINGDOM.        167 

should  cease  or  the  magical  scenes  in  the  chapel 
be  destroyed.  The  greater  part  of  the  inscriptions 
referred  to  the  soul,  and  preserved  it  from  the 
dangers  which  it  must  face  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
They  taught  it  the  sovereign  incantations  against 
the  bite  of  snakes  and  venomous  creatures,  the  pass- 
words that  conferred  on  them  the  right  to  enter  the 
company  of  the  good  gods,  and  the  exorcisms  that 
warded  off  the  influence  of  the  evil  gods.  While 
the  destiny  of  the  double  was  to  continue  as  the 
shade  of  terrestrial  life,  a  destiny  to  be  accomplished 


Fig.  154. — Mastabat  el  Faraiin. 

in  the  chapel,  the  destiny  of  the  soul  was  to  follow 
the  sun  across  the  sky,  and  for  this  he  depended  on 
the  instructions  written  for  him  on  the  walls  of  the 
tomb  chamber.  It  was  through  their  merit  that  the 
absorption  of  the  dead  man  into  Osiris  was  com- 
pleted, and  that  he  enjoyed  for  ever  the  immunities 
essential  to  a  divine  being.  Above  in  the  chapel  he 
was  a  man,  and  he  there  comported  himself  after 
the  fashion  of  a  man  ;  here  he  was  a  god,  and  he 
comported  himself  after  the  fashion  of  a  god. 

The    enormous    rectangular    flat-topped     building 
called  by  the   Arabs  Mastabat  el  Faraun,  ''  the  scat 


1 68  TOMBS. 

of  the  Pharaoh  "  (fig.  154),  stands  by  the  side  of  the 
pyramid  of  Pepi  II.  It  has  been  thought  to  be 
an  unfinished  pyramid  or  a  tomb  on  which  an  obelisk 
once  stood.  It  is  in  fact  a  pyramid  left  unfinished 
by  Ati,  the  first  Pharaoh  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty. 
Recent  excavations  have  shown  that  the  pyramids 
of  Dahshur  belong  to  two  different  periods.  One  of 
them,  the  northern  pyramid,  dates  from  the  Third 
Dynasty.  It  is  built  of  brick,  and  belongs  to  Sene- 
feru,  who,  like  Menes  and  Zeser,  appears  to  have 
built  two  tombs  for  himself,  while  the  others  are 
of  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Dynasties.  The  latter 
differ  curiously  from  the  usual  type.  The  lower  half 
of  one  of  the  stone  pyramids  rises  at  an  angle  of 
50''  41',  while  in  the  upper  half  the  slope  changes 
abruptly  to  42°  59'.  The  whole  appearance  is  that 
of  a  mastaba  crowned  by  an  immense  attic. 

At  Lisht,  where  the  pyramids  are  exclusively  of 
Pharaohs  oi  the  first  Theban  period,  there  is  again  a 
change  in  the  situation.  In  one  of  them  at  least,  in 
the  pyramid  I  attribute  to  Seniisert  I.,  the  sloping 
gallery  leads  to  a  perpendicular  shaft,  into  the  bottom 
of  which  open  chambers,  which  are  now  filled  with 
water.  The  pyramids  of  Illahun  and  Hawara,  where 
Senusert  II.  and  Amenemhat  III.  were  buried,  are 
on  the  same  plan  as  those  of  Lisht,  and  like  them 
are  full  of  water. 

The  use  of  pyramids  did  not  end  with  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty  :  they  are  to  be  found  at  Manfalut,  at 
Hekalli,  south  of  Abydos,  and  at  Esneh.  Until  the 
Roman  period  the  semi-barbarous  rulers  of  Plthiopia 
rnade    it  a  point    of   honour  to   give  their    tombs  a 


COMBINED    MASTABA   AND   PYRAMID.  169 

pyramidal  form.  The  earliest,  the  pyramids  of  Nurri, 
the  resting-places  of  the  Pharaohs  of  Napata,  recall 
in  their  construction  the  pyramids  of  Saqqara  ;  the 
later  ones,  those  of  Meroe,  present  some  new 
characteristics.  They  are  higher  than  they  are 
broad,  built  of  small  stones,  and  occasionally  finished 
at  the  angles  with  a  round  or  square  moulding.  The 
east  face  has  a  false  window  surmounted  by  a  cornice, 
and  is  flanked  by  a  chapel  preceded  by  a  pylon. 
These  pyramids  are  not  all  dumb.  Here,  as  on  the 
walls  of  ordinary  tombs,  are  scenes  from  the  funerary 
ritual  or  from  the  books  that  record  the  vicissitudes 
of  life  beyond  the  tomb. 

3. TOMBS    OF    THE    THEHAN    EMPIRE. 

Excavated  Tombs. 

Two  classes  of  tombs  superseded  the  mastaba 
throughout  Egypt.  In  the  first,  the  chapel  was  con- 
structed above  ground,  and  the  principle  of  the 
pyramid  was  combined  with  that  of  the  mastaba  ; 
in  the  second,  the  entire  tomb,  including  the  chapel, 
was  excavated  in  the  rock. 

The  earliest  examples  of  the  first  class  of  these 
tombs  are  to  be  found  in  the  Theban  necropolis  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom.  The  tombs  are  built  of  crude 
brick,  large  and  black,  without  any  admixture  of 
straw  or  grit.  The  lower  part  is  a  mastaba,  either 
square  or  oblong  in  plan,  measuring  sometimes  as 
much  as  40  or  50  feet  on  the  longest  side.  The  walls 
are  perpendicular,  and  rarely  high  enough  to  allow  a 
man  to  stand  upright  inside :  on  this  base  is  a  pointed 


I70 


TOMBS. 


pyramid,  which  varies  from    12  to  30  feet  in  height, 

covered  on  the  outside 
with  a  coat  of  plaster  and 
painted  white.  Owing  to 
the  poor  quahty  of  the 
ground  it  was  impossible  to 
excavate  a  burial  chamber, 
and  the  builders  were 
forced  to  conceal  it  in  the 
building  itself.  A  chamber 
v.'ith  corbelled  vaulting, 
closely  resembling  an  oven, 
is  frequently  to  be  found 
in  the  centre  (fig.  155),  and 
contains  the  mummy,  but 


Fig.  155.— Section  of  "vaulted" 
brick  pyramid,  Abydos. 


more  usually  the  lomb  chamber  is  constructed  partly 


Fig.  156. — Section  of  "  vaulted  "  tomb,  Abydos. 

in  the  mastaba  and  partly  in  the  foundations,  while 


COMBINED   MASTARA    AND   PYRAMIDION. 


Fig.  157.— Plan  of 
tomb,  Abydos. 


the  space  above  is  constructed  merely  to  relieve  the 
weight  (fig.  156).  In  many  cases  there  was  no  ex- 
ternal chapel,  and  the  stela  placed  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  building,  or  embedded  in 
the  outer  face  of  the  wall,  marked 
the  place  for  offerings.  Some- 
times a  vestibule  was  added  in 
front  where  the  relatives  could 
assemble  (fig.  157),  and  in  very 
rare  cases  one  finds  a  low  girdle 
wall  defining  the  pyramid  area. 
This  compound  form  prevailed  in 
the  Theban  cemeteries  from  the 
early  years  of  the  Middle  King- 
dom. Several  kings  and  nobles 
of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty  built 
tombs  for  themselves  at  Drah  Abu'l  Neggeh  very 
similar  to  those  at  Abydos  (fig.  158).  Mentuhotep  II. 
built  himself  an  immense  mastaba  about  130  feet 
long,  on  which  he  placed  his 
pyramid,  actually  in  the  western 
court  of  his  funerary  temple  at 
Deir  el  Bahari,  while  his  sepul- 
chral chamber  was  reached  by  a 
long  gallery  cut  in  the  rock  behind. 
During  the  centuries  that  fol- 
lowed, the  relative  size  of  pyramids 
and  mastabas  was  modified.  The 
mastabas  which  we  have  seen  as 
insignificant  basements  gradually  recovered  their 
original  importance,  while  the  pyramid  became 
smaller,  and  was  finally  reduced  to  an   insignificant 


Fig.  158.— Theban  tomb, 
with  pyramidion,  from 
scene  in  a  tomb  at 
Sheikh  Abd  cl  Giirnch. 


72 


TOMBS. 


N\\\\VAlHl//7^ 


n 


pyramidlon  (fig.  159).  They  abounded  in  the  necro- 
poHs  of  Thebes  of  about  the  Ramesside  period,  but 
they  have  all  perished,  and  it  is  from  contemporary 
paintings  that  we  learn  the  numerous 
varieties,  while  the  chapel  of  one  of 
the  apis  bulls  that  died  under  Amen- 
hotep  III.  still  stands  to  prove  that 
the  fashion  extended  as  far  as 
Memphis.  Of  the  pyramidion  scarcely 
any  traces  remain,  but  the  mastaba  is 
intact.  It  is  a  limestone  cube,  stand- 
ing on  a  basement,  supported  at  the 
angles  by  four  columns  and  crowned 
with  a  hollowed  cornice  :  a  set  of 
five  steps  led  up  to  the  inner  chamber 
(fig.  160). 

The  earliest  examples  of  the  second 
kind  of  tomb,  those  to  be  seen  at  Gizeh  among  the 
mastabas  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  are  neither  large  nor 
highly  decorated.  During 
the  Sixth  Dynasty  they 
were  more  carefully  con- 
structed, and  in  more  dis- 
tant localities,  at  Bersheh, 
Sheikh-Said,  Kasr  es  Said, 
Denderah,  and  Nagada ; 
but  it  was  later  that  they 
attained  their  full  develop- 
ment, during  the  long 
interval  that  divided  the  last  Memphite  kings  from 
the  first  Theban  rulers. 

Here,  again,  we  find  the  various  elements  of  the 


Fig.  159. — Theban 
tomb  with  pyra- 
midion, from 
wall  painting. 


Fij 


160. — Section  of  apis  tomb, 
time  of  Amenhotep  III. 


ROCK-CUT  TOMBS.  173 

mastaba.  The  architect  chose  by  preference  h'me- 
stone  ridges  well  in  sight,  high  enough  on  the  cliff  to 
be  safe  from  the  gradual  rise  of  the  cultivated  ground, 
and  yet  sufficiently  low  for  the  funeral  procession  to 
reach  it  without  difficulty. 

The  finest  of  these  tombs  belong  to  the  great 
feudal  lords,  who  at  the  time  of  the  Middle  Kingdom 
divided  the  territory  of  Egypt  among  themselves  ; 
the  princes  of  Minieh  rest  at  Beni  Hasan,  those  of 
Khnum  at  Bersheh,and  those  of  Siut  and  Elephantine 
at  Siut  and  opposite  Assiian.     Sometimes,  as  at  Siut, 


..r-^=^^^ 


Fig.  l6l. — Tombs  in  clift"  opposite  Assuan. 

Bersheh,  and  Thebes,  the  tombs  are  at  different  levels 
on  the  side  of  the  cliff;  in  other  cases,  as  at  Assuan 
(fig.  i6i)  and  Beni  Hasan,  they  follow  the  limestone 
strata,  and  are  ranged  in  an  approximately  straight 
line.  A  sloping  road  or  stairway,  constructed  of 
roughly  hewn  stone,  led  from  the  valley  to  the 
entrance  of  the  tomb.  At  Beni  Hasan  and  Thebes 
the  road  disappeared  more  or  less  completely  beneath 
the  sands,  but  the  stairway  of  one  of  the  Assuan 
tombs  is  still  intact  with  its  two  lateral  flights  of  steps 
for  the  men  and  the  central  slide  up  which  the  coffin 
and  the  heavy  funeral  furniture  were  dragged.     The 


174 


TOMBS. 


funeral  procession,  having  slowly  ascended  it,  paused 
in  front  of  the  tomb  to  perform  the  last  rites  for  the 
mummy. 

The  plan  of  the  chapel  is  not  uniform  in  any 
group.  Many  of  the  Beni  Hasan  tombs  have  a 
portico,  where  the  pillars,  bases,  and  entablature  are 
all  carved  in  the  rock  itself      In  the  tombs  of  Ameni 


Fig.  162. — Facade  of  tomb  of  Khnumliotep,  at  Beni  Hasan, 
Twelfth  D3-nasty. 

and  Khnumliotep  (fig.  162)  the  portico  is  composed  of 
two  polygonal  columns.  At  Assuan  (fig.  163)  a 
rectangular  lintel  crosses  the  narrow  door  carved  out 
of  the  sandstone,  at  about  one-third  of  its  height, 
thus  forming  the  semblance  of  a  door  within  the 
doorway.  At  Siut,  in  front  of  the  tomb  of  Hepzefa, 
there  is  a  regular  porch  about  24  feet  high,  with 
a  vaulted  roof  of  centred  stones,  charmingly  painted 


ROCK-CUT   TOMBS. 


175 


and  sculptured.  More  often  it  was  considered  suffi- 
cient to  smooth  and  straighten  the  sloping  face  of  the 
rock  for  a  space  corresponding  to  the  intended  width 
of  the  tomb.  This  method  had  the  double  advantage 
of  forming  a  platform  enclosed  on  three  sides,  and 
also    of    obtaining 

a    vertical     facade  ,"  i'.!^-^  ^  -— is—, 

which  could  be  de- 
corated if  desired. 
Sometimes  the 
doorway  placed  in 
the  centre  of  this 
facade  had  no 
frame,  and  some- 
times it  was  framed 
by  two  uprights 
and  a  slightly 
projecting  lintel. 
Where  inscriptions 
exist  they  are  very 
simple.  At  the 
top  are  one  or  two 
horizontal  lines, 
and  on  the  sides 
one  or  two  vertical 
lines    accompanied 

by  a  human  figure,  either  seated  or  standing.  These 
comprised  a  prayer  and  the  name,  titles,  and  parentage 
of  the  deceased.  The  chapel  has  usually  only  one 
chamber,  which  is  either  square  or  oblong,  with  a 
flat  or  slightly  vaulted  roof,  and  lighted  only  from 
the  door.     Sometimes  the  pillars  and  architraves  cut 


Pig.  163. — Facade  of  tomb,  Assuan. 


176 


TOMBS. 


in  the  live  rock  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  hypostyle 
hall.  The  tombs  of  Ameni  and  Khnumhotep,  the 
two  wealthiest  nobles  of  Beni  Hasan,  each  possess 
four  of  these  pillars  (fig.   164).     Other  chapels  have 

six  or  eight,  variously 
arranged.  An  un- 
finished tomb  was 
originally  a  single 
chamber  \\m  t  h 
rounded  roof  and 
six  columns.  Later 
on  it  was  enlarged 
on  the  right  side, 
and  the  new  addi- 
tion formed  a  kind 
of  portico  with  a 
flat  roof  supported 
on    f o u r    columns 

(fig.  165). 

To  hollow  out  a 
serdab  in  the  living 
rock  was  almost 
i  m  poss  ib  le,  and 
movable  statues  left 
in  a  place  accessible 
to  all  comers  would 
be  liable  to  be  stolen 
or  damaged.  The  serdab  was  therefore  combined 
with  the  chapel  and  converted  into  a  sanctuar)-. 
This  was  a  more  or  less  spacious  niche  cut  out  of  the 
rear  wall,  and  almost  invariably  opposite  the  door. 
There  the  ficrures  of  the  deceased  and  his  wife  were 


Fig.  164. — Plan  of  tomb  of  Khnumhotep, 
Beni  Hasan. 


TOMB   DECORATIONS    OF    NEW    KINGDO^T.      1 77 


enthroned,  also  carved  out  of  the  rock  ;  on  the  walls 
were  paintings  of  the  funerary  feast,  and  the  entire 
decoration  of  the  chapel  converged  towards  the 
sanctuary,  as  in  the  mastaba  it  converged  towards 
the  stela.  The  stela,  however,  is  still  here  in  its  old 
place  on  the  west  wall.  With  the  New  Kingdom  we 
find  some  changes  in  the  decoration  of  the  chapel  and 
sanctuary.  On  the  whole  it  is  much  the  same  as  of 
old,  but  with  noteworthy 
additions.  The  progress  of 
the  funeral  procession  and 
the  taking  possession  of  the 
tomb  by  the  double,  which 
hitherto  were  scarcely  re- 
presented, are  ostentatiously 
set  forth  on  the  walls  of  the 
Theban  tomb.  The  convoy 
approaches  with  the  weeping 
women, the  crowds  of  friends, 
the  men  carrying  funerary 
furniture,  the  barks,  and  the 
catafalque  drawn  by  oxen. 
It  arrives  at  the  door  ;   the 

mummy  is  placed  upright  on  its  feet,  receives  the 
farewells  of  the  family,  and  undergoes  the  final 
manipulations  necessary  to  adapt  it  for  its  future  life 
(fig.  166).  The  sacrifice  and  its  preliminaries,  field 
labour,  sowing,  harvesting,  rearing  of  cattle,  manual 
crafts,  all  appear  as  before,  and  are  painted  with  a 
profusion  of  bright  colours. 

Many  details  now  appear  that  had   not  been  given 
during  the  early  d\'nasties,  and  others  are  absent  that 
12 


Fig.    165. — Plan   of  unfinished 
tomb,  Beni  Hasan. 


i;8 


TOMBS. 


were  never  previously  omitted  ;  but  centuries  had 
elapsed,  and  in  twenty  centuries  many  changes  come 
about  even  in  conservative  Egypt.  We  may  search 
almost  in  vain  for  the  herds  of  gazelles,  for  under  the 
Ramessides  these  animals  were  rarely  domesticated. 
The  horse,  on  the  contrary,  was  now  well  known  in 
the    rich    valley,  and    it   is    to    be    seen    pawing   the 


M   '::^f. 


[~1^^^ 


?57r^Jm 


Fig.   1 66. — Funeral   procession  and  ceremonies  from  wall  paintings, 
tomb  of  Manna,  Thebes,  Nineteenth  Dynast}'. 


ground  where  formerly  gazelles  were  pastured.  The 
trades  are  more  numerous  and  complicated,  the  tools 
more  perfect,  and  the  aspirations  of  the  deceased 
more  varied  and  personal.  When  the  rules  for  tomb 
decoration  were  first  formulated  the  idea  of  future 
retribution  did  not  exist,  or  was  very  dimly  con- 
ceived.   The  deeds  done  b}'  man  here  below  exercised 


BIOGRAPHICAL   INSCRIPTIONS   ON    TOMBS.      1 79 

no  influence  on  the  fate  that  awaited  him  elsewhere  ; 
good  or  bad,  from  the  moment  that  the  rites  had 
been  performed  over  him,  and  the  prayers  recited,  he 
must  necessarily  continue  wealthy  and  happy.  In 
order  to  establish  his  identity  it  was  of  course 
necessary  to  state  his  name,  titles,  and  parentage  ; 
there  was  no  need  to  describe  his  past  in  detail. 
But  when  beliefs  in  rewards  and  punishments  arose, 
it  was  recognised  that  it  would  be  advisable  to 
guarantee  for  each  individual  the  merit  of  his  own 
actions,  and  biographical  details  were  added  to  the 
summary  of  social  standing  that  had  hitherto  been 
considered  sufficient.  At  first  there  were  only  a  few 
words,  but  about  the  time  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty  we 
find  actual  pages  of  history  in  the  tomb  of  Una,  a 
high  official,  who  records  the  services  rendered  by 
him  under  four  sovereigns.  Then,  again,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  New  Kingdom,  drawings  and 
paintings  combine  with  inscriptions  to  immortalise 
the  exploits  and  achievements  of  the  deceased. 
Khnumhotep  of  Beni  Hasan  expatiates  in  detail  on 
the  origin  and  grandeur  of  his  ancestors.  Khett 
displays  on  the  walls  the  vicissitudes  of  military 
life,  manoeuvres  of  soldiers,  war-dances,  besieging  of 
fortresses,  battle,  and  bloodshed.  The  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  perpetuates  in  this  as  in  all  else  the  tradi- 
tions of  earlier  ages.  Ai',  in  his  fine  rock-tomb  at 
Tell  el  Amarna,  recounts  the  episodes  of  his  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Akhenaten.  Neferhotep  of 
Thebes  received  the  decoration  of  the  golden  collar 
from  Horemheb,  and  he  records  with  much  com- 
placency the  smallest  incidents  of  the  investiture,  the 


l80  TOMBS. 

discourse  of  the  king,  the  year  and  the  day  on  which 
this  supreme  distinction  was  conferred  on  him. 
Another,  who  had  presided  over  a  survey,  shows 
himself  accompanied  by  his  land  surveyors  with  their 
measuring-lines,  and  he  is  also  presiding  at  a  census 
of  the  human  population,  as  formerly  Ti  presided  at 
a  numbering  of  his  cattle.  The  stela  shares  in  the 
new  characteristics  that  transform  mural  decorations  ; 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  prayers  it  contains  a 
panegyric  on  the  deceased,  a  sketch  of  his  life,  and 
only  too  rarely  his  ciirsus  Jiojioruui,  with  the  dates. 

When  space  permitted,  the  tomb  chamber  was 
immediately  below  the  chapel  ;  the  shaft  was  some- 
times cut  in  a  corner  of  one  of  the  chambers,  and 
sometimes  outside  in  front  of  the  door.  In  the  large 
cemeteries  at  Thebes  or  Memphis,  for  instance,  it  was 
not  always  possible  to  superpose  the  three — tomb, 
shaft,  and  chapel.  There  was  risk  of  interfering  with 
tombs  on  a  lower  level  if  an  attempt  was  made  to 
give  the  usual  depth  to  the  shaft.  Two  methods 
were  adopted  to  avoid  this  danger.  Either  a  long 
horizontal  gallery  was  made,  at  the  end  of  which  the 
shaft  was  sunk,  or  a  horizontal  or  slightly  sloping 
disposition  of  the  chambers  was  substituted  for  the 
old  vertical  arrangement.  In  this  case  the  passage 
opens  from  the  centre  of  the  near  wall  ;  the  mean 
length  varies  from  20  to  130  feet.  The  tomb  chamber 
is  small  and  plain  like  the  gallery.  Under  the  Theban 
dynasties  the  soul  was  no  more  concerned  about  the 
decorations  than  it  was  under  the  Memphite  Pharaohs, 
but  when  the  walls  were  decorated  the  figures  and 
inscriptions   related   far  more  to  the  life  of  the  soul 


TOMB    INSCRIPTIONS.  .  l8l 

than  to  that  of  the  double.  In  the  tomb  of  Harhotep, 
who  flourished  in  the  time  of  the  Senusci  ts  (Twelfth 
Dynasty),  and  in  similar  rock-tombs,  the  walls,  with 
the  exception  of  the  doorways,  were  divided  into  two 
registers.  The  upper  part  belonged  to  the  double^ 
and  beside  the  table  of  offerings  there  are  objects 
similar  to  those  figured  in  certain  mastabas  of  the 
Sixth  Dynasty,  stuffs,  jewels,  weapons,  and  perfumes, 
which  Harhotep  would  require  to  ensure  eternal 
youthfulness  of  limb.  The  lower  register  belonged 
to  both  the  double  and  the  soul,  and  there  one  reads 
fragments  of  liturgical  works,  the  Book  of  the  Dead, 
Ritual  of  Einbaluuiient^  Ritual  of  Funerals,  whose 
magic  virtues  protected  the  soul  and  afforded  comfort 
for  the  double.  The  stone  sarcophagus  and  the 
wooden  coffin  are  covered  with  writing,  for  precisely 
as  the  stela  was  an  epitome  of  the  entire  chapel,  so 
the  sarcophagus  and  coffin  formed  an  epitome  of  the 
sepulchral  chamber,  and  imitated  a  vault  within  the 
actual  vault. 

As  at  Memphis,  there  are  royal  tombs  at  Thebes, 
that  should  be  studied  to  realise  to  what  perfection 
the  decoration  of  the  passages  and  tomb  chambers 
was  carried.  Nothing  now  remains  of  the  earliest  of 
these,  wdiich  were  once  scattered  over  the  plain  and 
on  the  southern  slope  of  the  hills.  The  mummies  of 
Amenhotep  I.,  of  Sekenenra,  and  of  Aahhotep  have 
survived  the  stone  resting-places  intended  to  safe- 
guard them.  As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  all  the  best  places  had  been 
occupied,  and  it  was  necessary  to  search  elsewhere 
for  a  suitable  site  on  which  to  establish  a  new  royal 


1 82  TOMBS. 

cemetery.  Behind  the  mountain  that  borders  the 
Theban  plain  on  the  north  there  was  a  rocky  hollow, 
enclosed  on  all  sides  and  communicating  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  only  by  mountainous  tracks.  It 
divides  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  turns  sharply 
to  the  south-east,  while  the  other  extends  some 
distance  to  the  south-west,  and  again  divides  into 
secondary  ramifications.  On  the  east  it  is  dominated 
by  a  mountain  that  recalls  on  a  gigantic  scale  the 
step  pyramid  of  Saqqara.  The  engineers  observed 
that  this  valley  was  only  separated  from  the  wady 
that  leads  to  the  plain  by  a  barrier  some  500  cubits 
thick.  There  was  nothing  here  to  daunt  such  ex- 
perienced sappers  as  the  Egyptians.  They  cut  a 
tunnel  50  or  60  cubits  deep  through  the  solid  rock, 
at  the  end  of  which  a  narrow  passage  like  a  gateway 
gives  access  to  the  valley  beyond.  Was  this  gigantic 
work  undertaken  under  Amenhotep  I.?  His  successor, 
Thothmes  I.,  is  at  all  events  the  first  Pharaoh  whose 
tomb  has  been  found  here.  He  was  followed  by 
Thothmes  H.,  Hatshepsut,  Thothmes  HI.,  and  most 
of  their  successors,  and  then  by  the  Pharaohs  of  the 
Nineteenth  Dynasty,  and  the  Ramessides  one  after 
another.  Herihor  was  perhaps  the  last,  and  com- 
pleted the  series.  So  many  sovereigns  gathered  here 
won  for  the  locality  the  name  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Tombs  of  the  Kings,  a  name  it  retains  to  the  present 
day. 

The  tombs  were  not  complete,  the  chapel  stood  far 
off  on  the  plain,  at  Gurneh,  at  the  Ramesseum,  at 
Medinet  Habu,  and  these  have  already  been  described. 
Like  the  Memphite  pyramid,  the  Theban  tomb  con- 


THE   TOMBS   OF   THE    KINGS.  1 83 

tains  only  the  corridors  and  the  tomb  chamber. 
During  the  day  the  pious  soul  incurred  no  serious 
danger,  but  at  evening,  when  the  eternal  waters  that 
flow  round  the  heavens  sink  in  the  west  and  plunge 
behind  the  mountains  that  bound  the  earth  on  the 
northern  side,  the  soul  with  the  sun  bark  and  its 
escort  of  luminary  deities  entered  a  world  that  was 
strewn  with  ambuscades  and  perils.  For  twelve 
hours  the  sacred  convoy  traversed  the  dark  sub- 
terranean regions,  where  genii,  some  hostile,  others 
friendly,  endeavoured  cither  to  obstruct  its  passage 
or  aided  in  surmounting  the  difficulties  of  the  way. 
At  intervals  a  gate,  defended  by  a  gigantic  serpent, 
opened  before  it,  and  permitted  the  bark  to  enter  an 
immense  hall,  full  of  flames  and  smoke,  of  monsters 
with  hideous  faces  and  of  executioners  who  tortured 
the  damned.  Then  the  bark  once  more  entered 
narrow,  gloomy  corridors,  and  encountered  more  blind 
journeying  in  the  horrors  of  darkness,  struggles  with 
malevolent  genii,  and  again  the  joyous  reception  of 
the  propitious  gods.  By  the  morning  the  sun  had 
reached  the  extreme  limit  of  the  land  of  darkness  ; 
he  quitted  it  with  the  first  beams  of  dawn,  and  finally 
rose  in  the  east  to  herald  the  new  day.  The  tombs 
of  the  kings  were  fashioned  as  far  as  possible  on  the 
model  of  the  underworld.  They  had  their  galleries, 
their  doors,  and  their  vaulted  halls  that  penetrated 
far  into  the  heart  of  the  mountain.  The  arrangement 
of  tombs  in  the  valley  was  made  without  any  con- 
sideration of  sequence  of  dynasty  or  succession  to  the 
throne.  Each  sovereign  pierced  the  rock  at  a  place 
where  he  hoped  to  find  a  suitable  vein  of  stone,  and 


1 84  TOMBS. 

with  so  little  regard  fur  his  predecessors  that  the  men 
engaged  in  the  work  had  often  to  change  the  direction 
in  order  to  avoid  damaging  a  neighbouring  tomb. 
The  plans  of  the  architect  were  very  simple,  and  could 
be  modified  at  will  ;  it  was  not  considered  necessary 
to  carry  them  out  scrupulously,  and  thus  the  actual 

rx=3 ^^;dp33 


1 


Fig.  167. — Plan  of  tomb  of  Rameses  IV 


measurements  and  arrangement  of  the  tomb  of 
Rameses  IV.  (fig.  167)  differ  at  the  sides  and  in  their 
order  from  the  original  plan  which  is  preserved  on 
a  papyrus  now  in  the  Turin  Museum  (fig.  168).  No- 
thing, however,  could  be  simpler  than  the  general 
arrangement.     A  square  door  with  very  sober  decora- 


1I:==::::e^^- 


^ 


Fig.  168. — Plan  of  tomb  of  Rameses  IV.,  from  Turin  papyrus. 

tion  opened  on  a  gallery  leading  to  a  chamber  of 
varying  dimensions.  From  this  a  second  gallery 
opened  on  to  a  second  chamber,  and  thence  at  times 
to  other  chambers,  and  finally  to  that  in  which  the 
coffin  la}\  In  some  of  the  tombs,  the  whole  length 
fi-om  the  entrance  to  the  far  end  is  on  a  gentle  slope 
perhaps  interrupted  by  two  or  three  low  steps  ;  in 
others    the   various    parts   are    in    stages    one    below 


THE   TOM  US   OF   THE   KINGS.  1 85 

another.  In  the  tomb  of  Seti  I.  (fii^.  169)  a  steep 
staircase  and  an  uneven  slope  (a)  leads  to  an 
ante-chamber  and  two  halls  with  pillars  (15).  A 
second  stairway  (c)  opening  from  the  floor  of  the 
ante-chamber  descends  to  the  second  part  (d),  which 
is  of  less  scanty  proportions  than  the  first,  and  con- 
tains the  sarcophagus.  The  tomb  was  not  intended 
to  end  there;  a  third  staircase  (e)  had  been  made  at 
the  end  of  the  principal  chamber,  which,  according  to 
the  original  design,  would  have  led  to  another  set  of 
chambers,  but  the  death  of  the  king  put  an  end  to 
the  work.     As  we  pass  from  one  tomb  to  another  we 


Fig.  169. — Plan  of  tomb  of  Seti  I. 


find  that  the  general  arrangement  does  not  vary 
greatly.  In  the  tomb  of  Rameses  III.  the  entrance 
gallery  is  flanked  by  eight  small  lateral  cells.  Else- 
where the  amount  of  painting  that  has  been  completed 
and  the  extent  of  the  galleries  form  the  only  differ- 
ences. The  smallest  of  these  rock-tombs  does  not 
exceed  5  feet  in  length,  while  the  tomb  of  Seti  I., 
which  is  the  most  complete,  is  more  than  470  feet  in 
length,  and  then  not  finished.  The  same  devices  that 
were  employed  by  the  engineers  of  the  pyramids  to 
throw  tomb  robbers  off  the  scent  were  adopted  in  the 
Theban  tombs — false  shafts,  mere  cul-de-sac,  were 
sunk,   and    painted   and   sculptured    walls   were   built 


1 86  TOMBS. 

across  the  galleries.  When  the  burial  had  taken 
place  the  doors  were  walled  up,  large  rocks  were 
placed  before  the  entrance,  and  the  original  appear- 
ance of  the  hillside  was  restored  as  far  as  possible. 

Seti  I.  has  provided  us  with  the  most  complete 
type  we  possess  of  this  form  of  sculpture  ;  the  figures 
and  hieroglyphs  in  his  tomb  are  real  models  of 
drawing  and  of  graceful  sculpture.  The  tomb  of 
Ramescs  III.  already  shows  signs  of  deterioration. 
The  greater  part  of  it  is  summarily  painted,  yellow 
abounds,  and  the  reds  and  blues  suggest  the  colouring 
children  delight  in  daubing  on  their  pictures.  A 
little  later  mediocrity  reigned  unchallenged,  the 
drawing  became  feeble,  the  colours  increasingly  crude, 
and  the  later  tombs  are  no  more  than  lamentable 
caricatures  of  those  of  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  III.  Up 
to  the  end  the  decoration  remained  the  same,  and 
everywhere  it  is  on  the  same  principle  that  prevails 
at  the  pyramids.  At  Thebes  as  at  Memphis  its 
object  was  to  secure  for  the  double  the  enjoyment  of 
its  new  habitation,  to  introduce  the  soul  to  the  com- 
pany of  the  divinities,  both  of  the  solar  cycle  and  of 
the  Osirian  cycle,  and  to  guide  it  through  the 
lab}'rinth  of  the  infernal  regions  ;  but  the  Theban 
priests  endeavoured  to  present  to  the  eye  by  means 
of  drawing  what  the  Mcmphites  confided  by  writing 
to  the  memory  of  the  deceased,  and  he  was  enabled 
to  behold  what  formerly  he  had  been  forced  to  read 
on  the  walls  of  his  tomb.  Where  the  texts  of  Unas 
recount  how  Unas,  now  identified  with  the  sun,  sails 
on  the  celestial  waters  or  enters  the  Elysian  fields, 
the  scenes   in  the  tomb  of  Seti   I.  show  Seti   in  the 


TOiML;  PAINTINGS  UNDER  THE  NEW  KINGDOM.    1 87 

solar  bark,  and  the  scenes  in  the  tomb  of  Rameses  III. 
show  Rameses  in  the  Elysian  fields  (fig.  170).  Where 
the  walls  of  the  pyramid  of  Unas  have  only  the  text 
of  the  prayers  recited  over  the  mummy  to  open  his 
mouth  to  give  him  the  use  of  his  limbs,  to  supply  him 
with  clothing,  perfumes,  and  food,  the  tomb  of  Seti 
shows  the  mummy  itself,  and  the  ka  statues  that 
form  the  support  of  the  double^  the  priests  who  are 
performing  for  them  the  opening  of  the  month,  who 
are  clothing  them,  anointing  them,  and  serving  them 
with  various  dishes  from  the  funeral  banquet. 


Fig.  170.— Wall  painting  of  fields  of  Aalu,  tomb  of 
Rameses  III. 


The  star-strewn  ceilings  of  the  pyramids  represent 
the  starry  sky,  but  they  do  not  provide  the  soul  with 
the  names  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  On  the  ceilings  of 
some  of  the  rock -tombs  of  Thebes  the  constellations 
are  drawn,  each  with  its  proper  figure,  while  astro- 
nomical tables  describe  the  aspect  of  the  heavens 
during  each  fortnight  of  the  months  of  the  Egyptian 
year,  and  the  soul  had  only  to  raise  his  eyes  to  learn 
in  what  region  of  the  firmament  his  nightly  course 
would  lie.  The  whole  design  forms  an  illustrated 
account  of  the  journeys  of  the  sun,  and  in  consequence 


1 88  TOMBS. 

of  the  soul  during  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day. 
Each  hour  is  represented,  with  its  domain  separated 
by  boundaries,  the  doors  guarded  each  b}' an  immense 
serpent  who  bore  a  name  such  as  Fire  face,  Flaming 
eye,  Evil  eye.  The  third  hour  of  the  day  was  when 
the  fate  of  souls  was  decided  ;  the  god  Anubis  weighs 
them,  and,  according  to  the  indications  given  by  the 
balance,  assigns  them  an  abode.  The  guilty  soul  is 
delivered  over  to  the  cynocephali  who  serve  as 
assessors  of  the  tribunal  ;  they  drive  him  off  with  rods 
after  changing  him  into  a  sow  or  some  other  impure 
animal  ;  the  pure  soul  passes  into  the  fifth  hour, 
where  with  his  fellows  he  cultivates  the  fields,  reaps 
the  corn  of  the  celestial  harvest,  and,  his  appointed 
task  finished,  enjoys  his  leisure  under  the  guardianship 
of  kindly  genii.  After  the  fifth  hour  the  celestial 
waters  became  a  vast  battlefield  where  the  luminary 
deities  pursued  the  serpent  Apopi,  captured  and  bound 
him  in  chains,  and  final!}"  at  the  twelfth  hour  they 
strangled  him.  But  their  triumph  was  not  of  long 
duration.  The  victorious  sun  w^as  carried  by  the 
current  into  the  realms  of  the  hours  of  the  night,  and 
once  across  the  threshold  he  was  assailed,  like  Virgil 
and  Dante  at  the  gates  of  the  Inferno,  by  horrid  noise 
and  clamour.  Each  circle  had  its  own  voice  which 
could  not  be  confounded  with  the  voice  of  any  other. 
One  was  like  the  buzzing  of  an  immense  number  of 
wasps,  another  like  the  lamentations  of  women  for 
their  husbands  and  of  animals  for  their  mates,  and 
another  like  the  growling  of  thunder.  The  sarco- 
phagus as  well  as  the  walls  was  covered  with  these 
scenes,  whether  sinister  or  jo}-ous.      It  was  usually  of 


TOMB  FURNITURE  UNDER  THE  NEW  KINGDOM.    1 89 

red  or  black  granite.  As  it  was  the  last  piece  of  the 
funerary  outfit  to  be  carved,  there  was  not  always  time 
to  complete  it,  but  when  it  was  finished  the  scenes 
and  texts  that  covered  it  formed  an  epitome  of  the 
whole  tomb.  The  deceased  found  depicted  on  it  the 
details  of  the  superhuman  destiny  awaiting  him,  and 
also  learned  from  it  to  taste  the  blessedness  of  the  gods. 
Private  tombs  were  rarely  decorated  with  such  com- 
pleteness, but  two  at  least  of  the  rock-tombs  of  the 
Twenty-sixth  Dynasty,  those  of  Petamenoph  at 
Thebes  and  of  Bakenrcnf  at  Memphis,  rival  the  royal 
tombs  in  this  respect.  In  the  first  there  is  a  complete 
edition  of  the  l)Ook  of  tJic  Dead,  the  second  has  long 
extracts  from  the  same  book  from  the  Book  of  the 
Opening  of  the  MoutJi,  and  from  the  Pyramid  Texts, 
the  religious  formulae  found  in  the  pyramids. 

As  each  part  of  the  tomb  had  its  special  decoration, 
so  it  had  its  special  furniture.  Few  traces  are  left 
of  the  chapel  fittings  ;  the  stone  table  of  offerings  is 
usually  all  that  has  survived.  The  objects  immured 
in  the  serdab,  galleries,  and  tomb  chamber  have 
suffered  less  from  the  ravages  of  time  and  the  hand 
of  man.  Under  the  Old  Kingdom  the  statues  were 
always  enclosed  in  the  serdab  ;  the  tomb  chamber 
contained  little  beyond  the  sarcophagus,  some  head- 
rests in  limestone  and  alabaster,  geese  carved  in 
stone,  occasionally  some  scribes'  palettes,  frequently 
vases  of  various  forms  in  pottery  diorite,  granite, 
alabaster,  and  compact  limestone,  some  heaps  of 
grain  and  other  food  produce,  and  the  bones  of 
victims  sacrificed  on  the  day  of  the  funeral.  Under 
the    Theban     dynasties     the    supplies    for    the    dead 


190  TOMBS. 

became  richer  and  more  complete.  The  ka  statues 
of  the  family  and  servants,  which  formerly  were 
placed  with  that  of  the  master  in  the  serdab,  were 
now  relegated  to  the  tomb  chamber,  and  had 
diminished  in  size.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of 
the  objects  that  formerly  were  painted  on  the  walls 
were  now  supplied  in  the  round.  Thus  we  find 
funerary  barks  with  their  crews,  the  mummy,  the 
women  mourners,  the  priests,  and  the  disconsolate 
friends  ;  offerings  of  loav^es  in  baked  clay,  erroneously 
called  funerary  cones,  stamped  with  the  name  of  the 
deceased  ;  clusters  of  grapes  in  glazed  ware,  and  the 
limestone  moulds  wuth  which  the  deceased  was 
supposed  to  make  pottery  ;  oxen,  birds,  and  fish  to 
take  the  place  of  creatures  of  flesh  and  blood. 
Furniture,  kitchen  utensils,  toilet  requisites,  weapons, 
and  musical  instruments  abounded,  most  of  them 
carefully  broken  before  they  were  placed  in  the 
grave  ;  they  were  thus  killed,  that  their  souls  might 
follow  their  lord  into  the  other  world  and  serve  him 
there. 

The  small  statuettes,  made  in  wood,  stone,  and 
in  blue,  white,  or  green  glaze,  are  placed  by  the 
hundred,  or  even  by  the  thousand,  among  the  piled- 
up  heaps  of  provisions  and  boxes.  These  statuettes 
were  at  first  the  serdab  statues  made  of  much  smaller 
size,  and  like  them  intended  to  provide  a  body  for 
the  double  and  also  for  the  soul.  They  were  clothed 
in  the  same  way  as  the  individual  whose  name  they 
bore  was  clothed  during  his  lifetime.  Later  on,  their 
functions  became  less  important,  and  their  duties 
were    confined    to   answering    for   their    owner   when 


GRAVES   OF   THE    MIDDLE   CLASSES.  I9I 

he  should  be  called  upon  by  the  gods,  and  executing 
in  his  stead  the  demands  made  upon  him  for  labour 
in  the  Elysian  fields.  These  small  figures  are  called 
respondents,  usJiabtiii.  They  carry  labourers'  tools, 
and  they  are  modelled  to  represent  a  mummified 
body,  with  the  head  and  hands  free  and  unbandaged. 
The  canopic  jars,  with  their  heads  of  a  sparrow-hawk, 
a  cynocephalous  ape,  a  jackal,  and  a  man,  were  em- 
ployed as  early  as  the  Eleventh  D}"nasty  to  contain 
the  viscera,  which  were  necessarily  abstracted  from 
the  body  during  the  process  of  embalmment.  The 
mummy  itself  was  more  and  more  encumbered 
with  cartonnage,  papyri,  and  amulets,  which  formed 
a  complete  suit  of  magic  armour,  as  each  piece 
safeguarded  the  limbs  and  the  soul  that  animated 
them. 

Theoretically  every  Egyptian  had  a  right  to  an 
eternal  house  built  on  the  plan  the  development  of 
which  we  have  just  traced.  The  graves  of  the  middle- 
class  or  less  wealthy  folk  at  Beni  Hasan  consist 
of  a  deep  rectangular  pit  of  one  chamber,  reached 
by  a  vertical  shaft.  On  their  painted  wooden  coffins 
were  placed  models  of  boats,  both  sailing  (fig.  171) 
and  rowing,  and  figures  of  servants  carved  in  the 
round,  ready  to  carry  their  luggage,  neatly  tied  up, 
or  placed  in  baskets,  or  to  cook,  brew,  or  grind 
corn  for  them  (fig.  172),  Rows  of  these  graves  are 
found  at  Beni  Hasan,  where  the  humbler  folk  rest 
in  the  cliff  below  the  stately  tombs  of  their  feudal 
lords. 

The  poor  subsisted  very  well  without  all  that  was 
considered  necessary  for  the  great  and  wealthy.    They 


19:^ 


TOMBS. 


were  buried  wherever  it  could  be  done  most  cheaply, 
in  old  tombs  that  had  been  robbed  or  abandoned,  in 
natural  fissures  of  the  mountains,  in  shafts  where  a 
lodgm.ent  could  be  had  for  a  small  price,  or  in 
trenches  dug  for  public  use.  At  Thebes  during 
the  time  of  the  Ramessides  there  were  trenches 
dug   in    the    sand    always    ready  to    receive  corpses. 


Fig.  171. — Wooden  model  ot  sailing  boat  and  crew.  Round  the  cabin 
hang  the  weapons  and  shield  required  by  the  deceased  in  the 
future  life.     Beni  Hasan,  Twelfth  Dynasty,  Ashmolean  Museum. 


The  funeral  rites  over,  the  attendants  shovelled  a 
thin  covering  over  the  corpses  collected  during  the 
day,  sometimes  singly,  sometimes  in  batches  of  two 
or  three,  sometimes  so  crowded  together  that  no 
attempt  was  made  to  lay  them  out  in  regular  rows. 
Some  of  them  were  only  protected  by  their  bandages, 
others  were  wrapped  in  palm-leaves  bound  together 
in  the  shape  of  a  basket.  Those  most  cared  for  are 
placed  in  a  rude   wooden  box  without  inscription  or 


GRAVES    OF   THE    POOR 


93 


painting.  Many  are  thrust  into  old  coffins  without 
any  attempt  being  made  to  fit  the  coffins  to  their 
new  occupants,  or  flung  into  a  chest  made  out  of 
pieces  of  three  or  four  broken  mummy-cases.  There 
was  no  question  of  providing  a  funerary  outfit  for 
people  of  this  class ;  at  the  most  they  have  with 
them    a    pair    of   worn-out    leather    shoes,  a    pair   of 


Fig.  172. — Rough  wooden  model  of  servants  at  work.  A  squatting 
scribe  records  the  results,  overlooked  by  the  mistress.  Beni 
Hasan,  Twelfth  Dynasty,  Ashmolean  Museum. 


sandals  made  either  of  cardboard,  or  of  plaited 
osiers,  a  travelling-staff  for  the  celestial  highways, 
rings  in  glazed  pottery,  bracelets  or  necklaces  made 
of  a  single  row  of  small  blue  beads,  figurines  of 
Ptah,  Osiris,  Anubis,  Hathor,  and  Bast,  mystic  eyes, 
scarabs,  and,  more  important  than  all,  strings  twisted 
round  the  arm,  the  neck,  the  leg,  and  the  body  to 
protect  them  from  magical  influences. 
13 


CHAPTER   IV. 

PAINTING  AND  SCULPTURE. 

The  greater  number  of  the  statues  and  bas-reliefs 
that  decorated  the  temples  and  tombs  of  ancient 
Egypt  were  painted.  Coloured  stones,  such  as  granite, 
basalt,  diorite,  serpentine,  and  alabaster,  sometimes 
escaped  the  painter's  brush,  but  sandstone,  limestone, 
and  wood  were  rigorously  subjected  to  it,  and  if  one 
occasionally  finds  some  object  in  these  materials  that 
shows  no  traces  of  colour,  we  may  be  sure  that  the 
paint  has  been  accidentally  removed,  or  that  the  work 
was  left  unfinished.  The  sculptor  and  the  painter 
were  inseparably  allied,  and  the  former  had  scarcely 
finished  his  work  before  the  latter  took  possession  of 
it ;  the  same  artist  was  often  equally  skilled  in  the 
use  of  the  brush  and  the  chisel. 

I. DRAWING    AND    COMPOSITION. 

Of  the  system  adopted  by  the  Egyptians  for  teach- 
ing drawing  we  know  nothing.  They  had  learned 
from  experience  to  determine  the  general  proportions 
of  the  body,  and  to  establish  fixed  relations  between 
the  different  parts,  but  they  never  took  the  trouble  to 
tabulate  those  proportions  or  reduce  them  to  a  system. 
In  what  remains  of  their  work  there  is  nothing  that 
leads  us  to  believe  that  they  ever  possessed  an  official 

194 


DRAWING.  195 

canon  based  on  the  length  of  the  human  finger  or 
foot.  Their  method  was  one  of  routine  and  not  of 
theory.  They  had  models  made  by  the  master  him- 
self, which  were  repeatedly  copied  by  the  pupils  until 
they  could  reproduce  them  correctly.  That  they  also 
studied  from  nature  is  shown  by  the  facility  with 
which  they  seized  a  human  likeness  and  rendered  the 
characteristics  and  movements  of  various  animals. 
Their  first  attempts  were  made  on  slabs  of  limestone 
roughly  smoothed,  on  a  piece  of  wood  covered  with  a 
wash  of  white  stucco,  or  on  the  reverse  side  of  old, 
valueless  manuscripts.  New  papyrus  or  vellum  was 
too  expensive  to  be  wasted  on 
the  daubings  of  pupils.  The 
Egyptians  had  neither  pencil 
nor  stylus,  but  they  used  reeds, 
the    ends   of  which,    soaked    in  Fig.  lys.-Pestie  and  mor- 

'  tnr  for  grinding  colours. 

water,  split    into    minute    fibres 

and  formed  a  brush  more  or  less  fine,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  stem.  The  palette  was  a  narrow 
rectangular  piece  of  wood,  with  a  vertical  groove  at 
the  lower  end  in  which  to  lay  the  brush,  and  with 
two  or  more  cup-like  depressions  at  the  upper  end, 
each  of  which  contained  a  cake  of  dry  ink,  red  and 
black  being  the  colours  most  constantly  in  use.  A 
small  pestle  and  mortar  to  pound  the  colours  (fig.  173), 
and  a  cup  of  water  to  damp  and  wash  the  brushes, 
completed  the  outfit  of  the  apprentice.  Palette  in 
hand,  and  without  any  kind  of  support  for  his  wrist, 
he  seated  himself  cross-legged  before  his  model,  and 
practised  copying  it  in  black.  The  master  criticised 
the  copy,  and  corrected  the  faults  in  red  ink. 


196  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

The  drawings  that  have  come  down  to  us  are  on 
small  pieces  of  limestone,  and  are  most  of  them  in 
very  bad  condition.  They  have  been  found  in  great 
abundance  in  recent  years,  and  may  be  seen  in  most 
large  collections  in  Europe  and  America,  as  well  as  in 
Cairo.  The  subjects  are  very  varied.  They  include 
sketches  of  birds  and  animals,  many  of  them  hiero- 
glyphic characters;  Pharaoh  on  his  throne,  or  smiting 
the  foe,  or  otherwise  depicted  as  he  is  seen  on 
the  monuments  ;  divinities  and  their  worshippers. 
There  are  also  sketches  of  less  conventional  character, 
some  of  them  comic.  At  Turin  there  is  a  charming 
study  of  a  female  figure,  half  nude,  bending  back- 
wards as  though  in  the  act  of  turning  a  somersault. 
The  lines  are  flowing,  the  action  graceful,  and  the 
modelling  is  delicate.  The  artist  was  not  hampered 
then  as  now  by  the  use  of  a  stiff  implement.  The 
reed  brush  attacked  the  surface  perpendicularly,  and 
with  it  the  artist  could  make  a  line  as  thick  or  fine  as 
he  washed,  could  prolong  it,  or  stop  and  turn  with 
perfect  ease.  So  supple  an  instrument  lent  itself 
marvellously  to  rendering  the  humorous  and  laugh- 
able incidents  of  daily  Hfe.  The  Egyptian,  gay  and 
sarcastic  by  nature,  early  practised  the  art  of  carica- 
ture. A  papyrus  in  the  Turin  Museum  records  in  a 
series  of  spirited  vignettes  the  amorous  exploits  of 
a  shaven  priest  and  a  singer  (priestess)  of  Amon. 
On  the  reverse  are  serio-comic  scenes  of  animals. 
An  ass,  a  lion,  a  crocodile,  and  an  ape  are  giving 
a  concert  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music  ;  a  lion  and 
a  gazelle  are  playing  at  draughts  ;  the  Pharaoh  of  all 
the    rats    mounted   in    a   chariot   drawn    by  dogs    is 


DRAWING. 


197 


hastening  to  assault  a  fort  garrisoned  by  cats  ;  a  cat 
of  fashion,  having  a  flower  on  her  head,  has  quarrelled 
with  a  goose  ;  they  have  come  to  blows,  and  the 
unhappy  fowl  has  succumbed  in  terror.  Cats  were 
among  the  favourite  animals  of  Egyptian  caricaturists. 
An  ostracon  in  the  New  York  Museum  depicts  a  cat 
of  high  rank  in  full  dress  seated  on  a  couch,  while  a 
wretched  Tom  of  piteous  appearance,  w^ith  his  tail 
between  his  legs,  is  handing  her  refreshments  (fig.  174). 
We  also  possess  an  abundance  of  pen  drawings 
illustrating  religious 
works.  Almost  all 
of  these  works  are 
copies  of  the  Book 
of  the  Dead  and  the 
Book  of  knowmg 
that  ivhich  is  in  the 
Underworld.  They 
were  copied  by  hun- 
dreds from  ancient 
manuscripts  preserved  in  the  temples,  or  in  families 
where  the  cult  of  the  dead  was  the  hereditary  pro- 
fession. The  artist  therefore  had  to  make  no  demands 
on  his  imagination  ;  all  he  had  to  do  was  to  trans- 
cribe as  well  as  possible  from  the  copy  given  him. 
The  rolls  of  the  Book  of  knoiuing  that  -which  is  in  the 
Undei'ivorld  which  we  possess  are  not  earlier  than  the 
Twentieth  Dynasty.  The  workmanship  is  often  bad, 
and  the  figures  are  little  more  than  summary  scrawls 
hurriedly  drawn  and  badly  proportioned.  Copies  of 
the  Bcok  of  the  Dead  ^rc  so  numerous  that  from  this 
source  alone  a  history  of  miniature  painting  in  Egypt 


Fig.  174. 


—Comic  sketch  on  ostracon  in 
New  York  Museum. 


iqS 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


might  be  compiled  ;  some  are  as  early  as  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty,  while  others  are  of  the  time  of 
the  earlier  Caesars.  The  oldest  copies  are  for  the 
most  part  remarkably  fine  in  execution.  Each 
chapter  has  a  vignette  representing  a  divinity  either 
in  animal  or  human  form,  and  a  sacred  emblem,  or 
the  deceased  in  adoration  before  the  divinit}'.  These 
small  designs  are,  in  some  instances,  ranged  in  a 
single  line  above  the  text  (fig.  175);  in  others  they  are 
scattered  about  the  pages  like  the  illuminated  capitals 


Fig.  175. — Vignette  from  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  Saite  period. 


of  our  manuscripts.  At  intervals  large  pictures 
occupy  the  entire  height  of  the  papyrus.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  roll  comes  the  burial  scene,  then 
towards  the  middle  occurs  the  judging  of  the  soul, 
and  at  the  end  is  shown  the  arrival  of  the  soul  in  the 
fields  of  Aalu.  Here  the  artist  had  scope  to  exercise 
his  talent  and  show  the  extent  of  his  powers.  We 
see  the  mummy  of  Hunefer  upright  before  the  stela 
and  tomb  (fig.  176)  ;  the  women  of  the  family  are 
bewailing  him,  while  the  men  and  the  priest  present 
offerings  to  him. 

The  papyri  of    the  princes  and   princesses   of  the 


VIGNETTES   OF   THE   ''BOOK   OF   THE   DEAD."     199 

family  of  Pinotem  in  the  Cairo  Museum  prove  that 
the  good  traditions  of  the  school  were  maintained 
among  the  Thebans  as  late  as  the  Twenty-first 
Dynasty,  but  they  declined  rapidly  under  the  suc- 
ceeding dynasties,  and  for  centuries  we  find  nothing 


T^l/CH£\ffiy''>*l_ 


Fig.  176. — Vignette  from  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  from  the  papyrus 
of  Hunefer. 


but  rude  and  valueless  drawings.  The  downfall  of 
the  Persian  domination  occasioned  a  revival  ;  the 
tombs  of  the  Greek  period  have  yielded  papyri  with 
vignettes  carefully  executed  in  a  dry  and  conventional 
styfev Which  contrasts  strangely  with  the  broad,  bold 


200  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

style  of  earlier  work.  The  broad-tipped  brush  has  '| 
been  superseded  by  a  fine-pointed  pen,  and  artists 
vied  with  one  another  in  the  delicacy  of  their  strokes. 
■The  lines  with  which  they  overloaded  their  figures — 
the  details  of  the  beard,  the  hair,  and  the  folds  of  the 
garments — are  sometimes  so  minute  that  it  is  difficult 
to   distinguish     them     without    a    magnif\ing-glass. 


Fig.  177. — Part  of  scene  on  the  wall  of  the  pre-dynastic  tomb  oi 
Hierakonpolis. — F.  W.  Green,  Hicrakonpolis,  vol.  ii.  [Egypt 
Research  Account). 

Valuable  as  these  documents  are,  they  do  not  afford 
a  fair  estimate  of  the  full  powers  and  technical 
methods  of  the  Egyptian  artists  ;  it  is  to  the  walls  of 
their  temples  and  tombs  that  we  must  turn  if  we  wish 
to  understand  their  methods  of  composition. 

The  earliest  funerary  example  of  Egyptian  decora-  ^\ 
tive  art  we  possess  is  on  the  walls  of  the  prL.<^yij^>stic 
tomb    of    Hierakonpolis    (fig.    177).       The    carefuUy 


bRAWING.      •^  201 

'J, 

StCOObthednand  plastered  ^rick  wall  was  covered  with 
a' .wash  of  pale  yellow  (5chre.  On  this  the  figures 
w^re  ©utHrred  vin  red  ochre,  and  painted  in  black, 
bright  ^en  (probahily  obtained  from  pounded, 
malachit^/a  pasty  whit^  and  with  red  and  yellow 
ochre,  fy  the  foreground  are  human  beings,  animals, 
and  what  may  be  a  trapping  scene  ;  in  the  middle 
distance  are  six  !arge  vessels  with  cabins  ;  the  back- 
ground is  filled  ^iVi  with  herding  and  hunting  scenes. 
The  drawing  of  the  animals  is  good  ;  the  human 
beings  a^e  grotesque.  The  men  are  fighting  with 
sticks,  aiid  protecting  themselves  with  shields  made 
of  animal,  skins.  The  vanquished  foe  is  literally 
.jBepresented  as  overthrown.  Some  seated  women  on 
the  right  are  clad  in  white  petticoats.  There  is  no 
attempt  at  defining  the  river-banks,  and  many  of  the 
figures  seem  to  be  inserted  at  haphazard.* 

•:The  conventions  of  the  drawing  of  historical  times 
differed  considerably  from  ours.  Man  or  beast,  the 
subject  was  never  more  than  an  outline  against  the 
surrounding  background,  and  the  object  of  the  artist 
was  therefore  to  introduce  only  such  objects  as 
offered  a  distinct  profile  that  could  readily  be  seized 
and  adapted  to  a  flat  background.  In  the  case  of 
animals  the  problem  was  easily  solved,  the  line  of  the 
back  and  the  body,  the  head  and  the  neck,  in  flowing 
curves  parallel  to  the  ground,  could  be  outlined  in 
one  long  stroke  of  the  reed-pen,  while  the  legs  are 
well  detached  from  the  body.  The  animals  are  life- 
.lite  ^^^^  ^^'^^^  ^he  gait  and  action  and  flexion  of  the 
Hihbs  peculiar  to  it.       The  slow,  measured  tread  of 

t»nJ        *  Quibell  and  Green,  Hierakofipolis,  vol.  ii.  p.  20  ef  srq. 


202  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

the  ox;  the  short  step,  the  meditative  earvaVid  the  i{ 
sarcastic  mouth  of  the  ass  ;  the  jerky  Httle  trot'of  the 
goat  ;  the  spring  of  the  greyhound  when  hUntinig^v^^ 
all  these  are  rendered  with  unfailing  felicity  of  line 
and  expression.  And  when  we  pass  from  domestic 
animals  to  wild  ones,  we  find  the  same  perfection  of 
treatment,  the  calm  strength  of  the  lion  in  repose, 
the  stealthy,  sleepy  tread  of  the  leopard,  the  grimace 
of  the  ape,  and  the  somewhat  slender  grace  of  the 
gazelle  and  antelope  have  nowhere  been  better 
rendered  than  in  Egypt.  But  to  project  the  whole 
figure  of  man  in  the  same  way  without  deviating 
from  nature  was  not  so  easy.  The  human  figure, 
does  not  lend  itself  to  being  reproduced  in  outlina 
To  draw  it  in  profile  is  to  omit  some  of  the  most 
important  features  ;  the  contour  of  the  forehead  atid 
nose,  the  curve  of  the  lips,  and  the  cut  of  the  ear 
are  lost  when  the  head  is  drawn  full  face,  while  ithe 
bust,  on  the  contrary,  must  be  shown  full  face  in 
order  that  the  outline  of  both  shoulders  may  be 
rendered,  and  that  the  arms  may  be  duly  shown  one 
on  each  side  of  the  body.  The  contours  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  body  model  to  best  advantage  when  seen 
from  a  three-quarters  point  of  view,  while  the  legs 
should  be  seen  from  the  side.  The  Egyptians  had 
no  scruple  in  combining  these  contradictory  points 
of  view  in  the  same  figure,  part  in  profile  and  part 
full  face.  The  head,  with  the  eye  almost  invariably 
full  face,  is  in  profile  on  a  full-face  bust;  the  bust 
surmounts  a  trunk  seen  from  a  three-quarters 
point  of  view,  while  the  legs,  ngain,  are  in  pre 
These    conventions    were    accepted    as    early   as 


CONVENTIONS   OF   DRAWING.  203 

Thinite  period,  and  prevailed  throughout  Pharaonic 
times. 

And  yet  one  finds  figures  that  are  composed  more 
in  accordance  with  our  rules  of  perspective. 

In  the  case  of  most  of  the  personages  in  the  tomb 
of  Khnumhotep  at  Beni  Hasan,  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  rescue  them  from  this  system  of  malforma- 
tion. The  bust  is  in  profile  like  the  head  and  legs, 
but  one  or  other  of  the  shoulders  is  thrust  forward  in 
order  to  show  both  arms  (fig.  178),  and  the  effect  is  not 
happy.  But  observe  the  peasant  who  is  fattening  a 
goose,  and  still  more  the  man  who  is  throwing    his 


Fig.  178.  Fig.  179- 

Scenes  from  the  tomb  of  Khnumhotep  at  Beni  Hasan,  Twelfth 

Dynasty. 

weight  on  to  the  neck  of  a  gazelle  to  force  it  to  lie 
down  (fig.  179).  Here  the  action  of  the  arms  and 
hips  is  accurately  rendered,  the  perspective  of  the 
back  is  perfect,  the  projection  of  the  chest  caused 
by  the  position  of  the  arms  is  correctly  drawn  without 
any  exaggeration,  and  the  body  is  well  placed  upon 
the  haunches.  The  varied  movements  and  postures 
of  the  wrestlers  of  Beni  Hasan,  and  of  the  dancing 
women  in  the  Theban  tombs,  are  rendered  with 
perfect  freedom  (fig.  180). 

But  these  are  exceptional  ;  elsewhere  tradition   has 
been    more    powerful   than   nature,   and    to    the    end 


204 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


Egyptian  artists  continued  to  deform  the  human 
figure.  Their  men  and  women  are  actual  monsters 
from  the  anatomical  point  of  view,  even  though  they 
are  by  no  means  so  hideous  and  absurd  as  they  have 
been  represented  by  many  of  our  copyists.  The 
distorted  parts  of  the  body  have  been  joined  to  each 
other  with  such  ingenuity  that  the  combination  does 
not  strike  one  as  unnatural.  The  correct  and  the 
fictitious  lines  follow  and  complete  each  other  so 
cleverly   that  the   former  appears  to  be  the  natural 


Fig.  i8o. — From  a  tomb  painting  in  the  British  Museum, 
Eighteenth  Dynasty, 


complement  of  the  latter.  The  convention  once 
recognised  and  admitted,  it  is  difficult  to  over- 
estimate the  skill  shown  on  many  of  the  monuments. 
The  line  is  firm  and  even,  drawn  to  the  end  w^ith  one 
long  resolute  sweep  of  the  brush.  Ten  or  twelve 
such  strokes  sufficed  to  draw  a  life-size  figure  ;  one 
single  stroke  outlined  the  head  from  the  nape  of  the 
neck  to  the  base  of  the  throat,  another  represented 
the  rise  of  the  shoulders  and  the  fall  of  the  arms,  two 
accuratel}'  curved  lines  indicated  the  contour  from 
the  armpits  to  the  point  of  the  feet,  two  finished  tlic 


COMPOSITION. 


205 


legs,  and  two  the  arms.  The  details  of  clothing  and 
jewellery  at  first  summarily  indicated  were  afterwards 
worked  out  in  minute  detail,  and  one  can  almost 
count  the  tresses  of  hair,  the  folds  of  the  garment, 
the  enamel  on  the  girdle  or  bracelet.  This  admixture 
of  natural  ability  and  of  intentional  awkwardness  of 
rapid  execution  and  of  patient  re-working  does  not 
exclude  either  elegance  of  form,  the  grace  and  truth 
of  the  attitudes,  or  the  precision  of  the  movements. 
The  figures  are  peculiar,  but  they  are  alive,  and  for 
any  one  who  regards  them  without  prejudice,  their 


J  ig.  iSi.  -Funerary  repast,  tomb  of  Prince  Horemheb,  Eighteenth 
Dynasty. 

VW7f:iStrangencss  lends  a  charm  that  is  not  always 
to;  I16,  found  in  later  work  more  conformed  to  the 
veitities. 

Wer  admit,  then,  that  the  Egyptians  knew  how  to 
drawjv  But  were  they,  as  has  often  been  asserted, 
ignorant  of  the  art  of  composition  ?  Let  us  choose 
a  scene  at  random  from  one  of  the  Theban  tombs — 
that  which  represents  the  funeral  banquet  offered 
to  Horemheb  (fig.  181)  by  members  of  his  family. 
The  subject  is  half  realistic,  half  imaginary.  The 
deceased  and  his  relations  already  in  the  other  world 
are  here  depicted  in  company  with  the  living.    Visible, 


206  PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 

but  not  mixing  with  them,  they  are  assisting  at  the 
banquet  rather  than  partaking  of  it.  Horemheb  is 
seated  on  a  folding  stool  to  the  left  of  the  spectator  ; 
on  his  knees  is  a  little  princess,  daughter  of  Amen- 
hotep  III.,  of  whom  he  was  the  adoptive  father,  and 
who  died  before  him.  His  mother,  Senuit,  behind 
him  on  his  right,  seated  in  a  large  chair,  is  grasping 
her  son's  arm  with  her  left  hand,  while  with  the  right 
she  offers  him  a  lotus-bud.  A  tiny  gazelle,  which 
perhaps  was  buried  near  her,  like  the  gazelle  found 
beside  Queen  Isiemkheb  in  the  hiding-place  at  Deir 
el  Bahari,  is  tied  to  the  leg  of  the  chair.  The 
members  of  this  supernatural  group  are  of  gigantic 
size  ;  seated  as  they  are,  the  heads  of  Horemheb  and 
his  mother  are  on  a  level  with  those  of  the  women 
standing  before  them.  It  was  essential  that  the  gods 
should  be  larger  than  men,  kings  larger  than  their 
subjects,  and  the  dead  larger  than  the  living.  The 
relatives  and  friends  are  ranged  in  a  single  row 
facing  their  deceased  ancestors,  and  appear  to  be 
talking  among  themselves.  The  least  has  begun, 
the  jars  of  wine  and  beer  in  their  wooden  stands  are 
already  opened.  Two  young  slaves  are  rubbing  the 
living  guests  with  sweet-scented  essences  taken  from 
an  alabaster  jar.  Two  sumptuously  attired  women 
are  presenting  to  the  deceased  metal  bowls  full  of 
flowers,  grain,  and  perfumes,  placing  them  in  turn  on 
a  square  table.  Meanwhile  three  other  women  are 
playing  the  lute,  singing,  and  dancing,  thus  com- 
pleting the   homage   offered  to  the   deceased. 

As  the  tomb  is  here  the  scene  of  the  banquet,  the 
background  of  the  picture  is  formed  by  walls  covered 


208  PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 

with  hierogl\'phs,  in  front  of  which  the  guests  were 
seated  during  the  ceremony.  Elsewhere  the  scene 
of  action  is  clearly  indicated  by  tufts  of  grass  or  by 
trees  if  it  occurred  in  the  open  country,  by  red  sand 
if  in  the  desert,  or  by  a  belt  of  reeds  and  lotus  if  in 
the  marshes.  In  one  place  we  are  shown  a  woman 
of  quality  entering  her  house  (fig.  182).  One  of  her 
daughters  who  is  thirsty  is  taking  a  long  draught 
of  water  from  a  gfillaJi,  two  little  naked  children  with 
shaven  heads,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  have  run  to  the  street 
door  to  meet  their  mother,  and  the  toys  she  has 
bought  for  them  during  her  absence  are  being  handed 
to  them  by  a  servant.  Above  we  see  a  vinery  heavy 
with  clusters,  and  trees  laden  with  fruit  ;  this  is  the 
garden,  but  the  mistress  and  her  two  eldest  girls  have 
crossed  , it  without  stopping,  and  have  entered  the 
house,  i  Half  the  front  of  the  house  has  been  removed, 
and  we  can  see  what  they  are  doing  inside,  where 
three  servants  are  bringing  them  refreshments.  The 
picture  is  not  badly  composed,  and  it  might  be 
transferred  to  a  modern  canvas  without  much  altera- 
tion, but  the  same  clumsiness  or  prejudice  that  led 
the  Egyptian  to  place  a  head  in  profile  on  a  full-face 
bust,  has  prevented  his  arranging  his  scenes  in  proper 
sequence,  and  has  forced  him  to  adopt  expedients  of 
some  ingenuity  to  atone  for  the  absence  of  per- 
spective. 

Again,  when  drawing  a  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  the  same  action  it  was  usual  to  separate  them  as 
much  as  possible  to  avoid  the  outline  of  one  over- 
lapping another,  or  else  they  were  flatly  superposed 
as  though  they  were  of  only  two  dimensions  and  had 


ABSENCE   OF    PERSPECTIVE. 


109 


no  breadth.  A  herdsman  walking  in  the  midst  of  his 
cattle  treads  on  precisely  the  same  ground-line  as  the 
beast  which  partly  conceals  his  body.  In  the  case  of 
a  company  of  ^soldiers  advancing  in  marching  order 


Fig.  183. — From  wall  scene  in  tomb  of  Horemheb. 


to  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  the  head  and  feet  of  the 
farthest  figure  are  on  the  same  level  as  those  of  the 
soldier  nearest  to  the  spectator  (fig.  183).  Where  the 
chariots  defile  before  Pharaoh  one  could  swear  that 


From  wall  scene,  Ramesseum. 


all  the  wheels  follow  each  other  in  the  same  rut,  were 
it  not  that  the  body  of  the  first  chariot  partially  hides 
the  horses  of  the  one  that  follows  next  (fig.  184).  In 
these  examples  the  men  and  chariots  are  placed  so 
close  together,  whether  by  accident,  or  in  reproducing 
14 


210 


PAINTING   AND    SCULPTURE. 


the  actual  scene,  that  the  defect  is  not  too  apparent, 
and  the  Egyptian  artist  has  made  use  of  the  same 
contrivance  that  was  emplo}'ed  later  by  the  Greek 
sculptors.  Elsewhere  the  Egyptians  have  attempted 
to  secure  greater  accuracy.  In  the  case  of  the  archers 
in  the  battle  scene  of  Rameses  III.  at  Medinet  Habu, 
an  attempt  which  is  almost  successful  has  been  made 
to  render  them  in  perspective.  The  line  of  helmets 
falls  and  the  line  at  the  base  of  the  bows  rises  with 
perfect  regularity,  but  the  feet 
are  all  on  one  parallel  line, 
and  do  not  follow  the  direction 
of  the  other  lines  as  they 
should   (fig.    185). 

This  mode  of  representation 
is  not  uncommon  during  the 
Theban  period.  For  figuring 
troops  of  men  or  of  animals 
performing  the  same  action  at 
the  same  moment  it  was  em- 
ployed by  preference,  but  it 
involved  a  difficulty  which  was 
serious  in  the  eyes  of  the  Egyptians ;  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  man  the  human  figure  was 
almost  entirely  concealed,  a  very  small  part  only 
being  left  visible.  When  therefore  it  was  impossible 
to  group  all  the  figures  without  hiding  some  of  them 
the  whole  mass  was  broken  up  into  several  groups 
each  of  which  represented  an  episode,  and  these 
were  ranged  one  above  another  in  the  same  vertical 
plane.  The  height  given  to  each  man  docs  not 
depend  on  his  position  in  ordinary'   perspective,  but 


Fig.  185. — Archers,  repre- 
sented on  walls  of  Medinet 
Habii. 


ABSENCE   OF    PERSPECTIVE. 


211 


on    the    number    of    rows    needed    by    the    artist    to 

illustrate  his  subject.      If  he  only  required  two  rows, 

the    space    was    divided    into 

two,  if  he  wished  for  three,  it 

was  divided  into  three,  and  so 

forth,    while    in    the    case    of 

minor  details  the  register  could 

be  lowered.   Thus  in  the  funeral 

feast  of  Horemhebthe  amphorae 

are   arranged  in  a   space  con- 
siderably   narrower    than    that 

in  which  the  guests  are  seated. 

The     secondary    scenes    were 

generally  separated  by  a  line, 

but    this    line    was    not    indis- 
pensable, and   more   especially 

when     large    bodies    of     men 

regularly  drawn  up  had  to  be  expressed,  the  vertical 

rows  overlapped  one 
another  to  an  extent  that 
varied  according  to  the 
fancy  of  the  artist.  At  the 
battle  of  Kadesh  the  files 
of  the  Egyptian  phalanx 
overtop  one  another  as 
high  as  the  waist  (fig.  i86), 
while  scarcely  more  than 
the  head  of  the  Hittites  is 
visible  (fig.  187). 

This     latitude     in     the 

grouping   of  men   and  animals  is   by  no   means   the 

greatest  that  Egyptians  permitted  themselves;  houses, 


ig.  186.  — Phalanx  of 
Egyptian  infantry,  Ra- 
messeum. 


Fig.  187.— Hittite  battalion, 
Ramesseum. 


212 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


landscapes,  trees,  and  water  are  even  more  strangely 
treated.  A  canal  is  represented  by  a  narrow  rectangle 
placed  upright  on  its  side  with  wavy  lines  drawn 
across  it.  To  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the 
spectator  that  it  is  intended  to  represent  a  piece  of 
water,  crocodiles  and  fish  are  drawn  in  it  ;  boats  are 
balanced  on  the  upper  edge,  while  herds  of  cattle 
are  fording  it  breast-high.  The  place  where  the 
water  ends  and  the  bank  begins  is  marked  by  a 
fisherman  with  his  line.     In  other  places  the  rectangle 

looks  as  though  it  were 
suspended  half-way  up 
the  trunks  of  five  or  six 
palm-trees  (fig.  i88),  and 
then  we  are  given  to  un- 
derstand that  the  water 
is  flowing  between  two 
rows  of  trees.  Or  again, 
as  in  the  tomb  of  Rekh- 
mara  (fig.  189),  the  trees 
are  neatly  laid  down 
along  the  four  sides  of  a  pool,  and  a  boat  in  profile 
bearing  a  dead  body  and  dragged  by  slaves  also  in 
profile,  is  sailing  unconcernedly  on  the  vertical  face 
of  the  water.  Each  of  the  rock-tombs  of  the  Ramesside 
period  can  furnish  more  than  one  instance  of  such 
original  contrivances,  and,  after  studying  them,  one 
scarcely  knows  which  is  most  marvellous,  the  obstinacy 
of  the  Egyptian  who  would  not  adopt  the  natural 
laws  of  perspective,  or  the  wealth  of  imagination  that 
could  invent  such  a  variety  of  false  relations  between 
such  various  objects. 


Fig.  188. — Pool  and  palm-trees, 
from  tomb  of  Rekhmara, 
Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


SELECTION    AND   SEQUENCE   OF   SCENES.       213 

When  applied  to  large  spaces  these  proceedings 
are  less  startling  than  they  are  on  small  panels.  One 
feels  that  the  most  experienced  artist  would  be  forced 
to  resort  to  some  artifice  if  called  upon  to  cover  the 
walls  of  a  pylon,  and  this  consideration  renders  us 
more  indulgent  especially  as  the  subjects  treated  in 
these  immense  bas-reliefs  are  never  confined  to  one 


Fig.  189. — Scene  from  tomb  of  Rekhmara,  Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


single  episode.  Restricted  as  they  were  to  com- 
memorating the  victories  of  the  Pharaoh,  the  Pharaoh 
necessarily  plays  the  principal  part  ;  but  instead  of 
choosing  from  among  his  mighty  deeds  a  dominant 
episode,  the  artists  employed  elected  to  detail  the 
successive  events  of  his  campaign  :  a  night  attack  on 
the  Egyptian  camp  by  a  band  of  Asiatics,  spies  sent 
by  the  prince  of  the  Kheti  to  mislead  the  Pharaoh  as 
to  his  plans,  the  military  camp  of  the  king  surprised 


214 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


and  broken  into  by  the  Hittite  chariots,  the  battle  of 
Kadesh  and  its  various  incidents.  In  this  way  the 
pylons  of  Luxor  and  of  the  Ramesseum  give  us  an 
illustrated  history  of  the  campaign  of  Ran:ieses  II. 
against  the  Syrians.  It  was  after  the  same  fashion 
that  painters  of  the  early  Italian  schools  represented 


Fig.  190.— Scene  from  mastaba  of  Ptahhotep,  Fifth  Dynast} 


in  one  piece  and  in  unbroken  sequence  the  events  of 
their  own  history.  The  scenes  are  placed  on  the 
walls  without  any  definite  separating  lines,  and  there 
is  the  same  difficulty  in  dividing  the  groups  and 
distinguishing  the  various  personages  that  we  experi- 
ence with  the  bas-reliefs  on  the  column  of  Trajan. 
This    method    is  reserved   for   the   outside   of  the 


SUPERIMPOSED    BACKGROUNDS. 


215 


temples.  In  the  interior  and  in  the  tombs  the  different 
parts  of  a  picture  are  divided  into  registers,  placed  in 
rows  one  above  another  from  the  basement  to  the 
cornice.       This  adds  another   difficulty   to  those   we 


=  JCCk^ 


Fig.  191.— Palestrina  mosaic. 

encounter  in  endeavouring  to  understand  the  meaning 
and  style  of  the  Egyptian  artists.  We  imagine  that 
we  are  looking  at  a  variety  of  subjects  when  in  reality 
we  are  gazing  at  di.sjointed  parts  of  a  single  composi- 
tion.    Take  for  instance  one  of  the  walls  of  the  tomb 


2l6  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

of  Ptahhotep  at  Saqqara  (fig.  190).      In  order  to  grasp 
the  thread   that  h'nks  the  various  parts  together  we 
may  compare  it  with  the  "Roman  mosaic  of  Palestrina 
(fig.  191),  which  represents  some  of  the  same  scene?, 
but  in  a  manner  more  in  conformity  with  our  methods. 
In  the  foreground  is  the  Nile,  which  extends  to  the 
foot  of  the  hills.     On  the  farther  bank  are  towns  and 
obelisks,  farms   and  towers  that  are  Graeco-Roman  in 
style  and  resemble  the  buildings  of  Pompeii  far  more 
than    Pharaonic  monuments.     The  great  temple   on 
the    right,    in    the     middle    distance,    to    which    two 
travellers  are  making  their  way,  has  a  pylon   in  front 
against  which  are  placed  four  colossal  Osirian  figures, 
and    alone    suggests    the    general     arrangement     of 
Egyptian  architecture.     To  the  left  some  men   in   a 
large  boat  are  harpooning  crocodiles  and  the  hippo- 
potamus.    To  the  right  a  company  of  legionaries  led 
by  a  priest  and   massed   in   front  of  a  temple  appear 
to   be  saluting  a  galley  as  it   is  rowed  up  the  river. 
In   the   centre   of  the  picture   men   and   women   half 
nude  are  singing  and  carousing  under  the  shelter  of  a 
bower  thrown  over  a  branch  of  the  river.      Pap}TUS 
skiffs   occupied  by  single  boatmen,  and  a  variety  of 
small    vessels    fill    in    the    gaps    in    the    composition. 
The  desert  commences  behind  the  line  of  buildings, 
and  here  the  river  widens  out  into  pools  at  the  foot 
of  abrupt  hills.      In  the    upper    part   of   the  picture 
various  animals  either  real  or  imaginary  are  hunted 
by  bands  of  archers  with  shaven  heads. 

Like  the  Roman  artist  the  Egyptian  placed  himself 
on  the  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  reproduced  all  he  saw 
between  himself  and  the  horizon.     At  the  base  of  the 


SUPERIMPOSED    BACKGROUNDS.  217 

wall  painting  (fig.  190)  the  Nile  is  seen  flowing  between 
its  banks,  boats  come  and  go,  and  boatmen  quarrel 
and  strike  each  other  with  their  poles.  In  the  register 
above  are  the  river-banks  and  the  adjacent  fields, 
where  a  group  of  slaves  hidden  in  the  bushes  are 
trapping  birds.  Above,  again,  boat-building,  cord- 
making,  and  fish-curing  are  carried  on.  Finally,  under 
the  cornice  there  are  the  bare  cliffs  and  wild  desert 
plains,  where  greyhounds  are  pulling  down  gazelles 
and  scantily  clad  huntsmen  are  lassoing  wild  birds. 
Each  register  corresponds  to  one  plane  of  the  land- 
scape ;  but  the  artist,  instead  of  placing  his  planes  in 
perspective,  has  separated  and  superimposed  them. 
Everywhere  in  the  tombs,  as  even  in  the  primitive 
tomb  of  Hierakonpolis,  we  find  similar  combinations, 
scenes  of  inundation  and  of  civil  life  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  walls,  and  the  hills  and  hunting  scenes 
above. 

Sometimes  the  artist  inserted  between  these  two 
registers  another  containing  pastoral  scenes,  labourers 
and  artisans  working  at  their  trades,  and  occasionally 
the  intermediate  scenes  are  entirely  omitted,  and  the 
Nile  and  the  desert  are  placed  next  to  each  other. 
The  mosaic  of  Palestrina  and  the  Pharaonic  tomb 
paintings  represent  the  same  subject  treated  according 
to  the  conventions  and  methods  of  two  different 
schools  of  art.  Like  the  mosaic  the  wall-painting 
represents  not  a  series  of  isolated  scenes,  but  a  regular 
composition  which  may  be  interpreted  with  ease  by 
those  who  can  read  the  artistic  language  of  the 
period. 


2l8  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


-TECHNICAL    PROCESSES. 


The  preparation  of  surfaces  about  to  be  decorated 
required  much  time  and  care.  As  the  architects 
were  unable  to  give  a  perfectly  flat  surface  to  the 
walls  of  the  temple  or  pylon  the  decorators  were 
forced  to  adapt  themselves  to  slight  irregularities 
in  places.  The  blocks  of  which  the  walls  were 
formed  were  rarely  homogeneous,  and  the  limestone 
strata  in  which  the  tombs  were  excavated  almost 
invariably  contained  nodules  of  flint,  fossils,  and 
petrified  shells.  When  the  tomb  was  to  be  painted, 
the  wall  which  had  been  roughly  levelled  was 
washed  over  with  a  coat  of  black  clay  mixed  with 
finely  chopped  straw,  similar  to  the  mixture  used 
in  brick-making.  In  preparing  for  sculpture,  how- 
ever, the  sculptor  was  forced  to  arrange  his  subject 
so  as  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  irregularities  of 
the  stone.  If  they  occurred  in  the  midst  of  the 
figures,  and  were  not  too  hard,  they  were  worked 
over  with  the  chisel,  but  if  this  could  not  be  done 
they  were  removed  and  the  hole  was  plugged  with 
white  cement,  or  with  carefully  fitted  pieces  of 
limestone.  This  was  no  small  undertaking,  and  we 
could  point  to  tomb  chambers  where  as  much  as 
a  quarter  of  the  wall-space  is  made  up  of  inserted 
slabs  of  limestone.  This  preliminary  work  accom- 
plished, the  whole  was  washed  over  with  a  thin  coat 
of  fine  plaster  mixed  with  white  of  egg,  which  con- 
cealed all  inequalities  or  repairs  and  formed  a  smooth 
polished  surface,  over  which  the  brush  of  the  designer 
could  be  employed  with  freedom. 


SCULPTORS    SKETCHES    FOR    BAS-RELIEFS.     219 

In  unfinished  chambers  or  parts  of  chambers,  and 
even  in  the  quarries,  we  constantly  find  sketches  in 
red  or  black  ink  of  the  bas-reliefs  with  which  it  was 
intended  to  cover  them.  The  plan,  first  made  out 
on  a  small  scale,  was  then  squared  and  transferred 
to  the  wall  on  the  large  scale  by  assistants  and 
pupils.  In  some  places  the  subject  is  summarily 
indicated  by  two  or  three  rapid  strokes  of  the  reed- 
brush.  This  is  the  case  with  certain  scenes  that 
were  copied  by  Prisses  d'Avennes  from  the  Theban 


Fig.  192. — Sculptor's  sketch  from  tomb,  Old  Kingdom. 


tombs  (fig.  192).  Elsewhere  the  outline  is  fully 
drawn,  and  the  figures  on  their  squaring  lines  only 
await  the  sculptor.  Some  sculptors  took  the  pains 
to  determine  the  position  of  the  shoulders  and  the 
poise  of  the  body  by  horizontal  and  vertical  Hnes, 
on  which  they  marked  the  height  of  the  knee,  the 
hips,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  (fig.  193).  Others 
with  more  confidence  in  their  own  powers  attacked 
their  subject  at  once,  and  drew  in  their  figures 
without   any   sort   of   guide  ;    this   was    done   by  the 


220 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


artists  who  decorated  the  tomb  of  Seti  I.  and  the 
southern  walls  of  the  temple  of  Abydos.  Their  line 
is  so  pure  and  their  facility  of  execution  so  amazing 
that   it    has   been    supposed   that    they  made   use  of 

stencilling ;  but  this  opinion 
is  at  once  abandoned  when 
we  examine  the  figures 
closely  and  take  the  trouble 
to  measure  them  with  a 
compass.  The  forms  of 
some  are  slighter  than 
others,  the  contours  of  the 


Fig.  193.— Sculptor's  sketch  from 
Old  Kingdom  tomb. 


chest  are  more  accentuated  in  others,  or  the  legs  are 
farther  apart.  The  master  did  not  find  much  to 
correct  in  the  work  of  these  assistants.  Here  and 
there  he  altered  a  head,  he  flattened  or  accentuated 
a  knee,  or  modified  the  arrange- 


ment of  some  detail.  In  one 
instance,  however,  at  Kom 
Ombos  several  of  the  divinities 
on  the  roof  were  badly  placed, 
and  their  feet  came  where  their 
arms  should  have  been  :  the 
master  readjusted  their  position 
on  the  same  squared  surface 
without     effacing    the    original 

sketch.  Here,  at  any  rate,  the  error  was  noticed  in 
time  ;  at  Karnak  on  the  northern  wall  of  the  hypostyle 
hall,  and  again  at  Medinet  Habu,  the  error  was  only 
discovered  after  the  sculptor  had  completed  his  work. 
The  figures  of  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  HI.  sloped  back- 
wards,   and    appeared    about    to    overbalance ;    they 


Fig.  194. — Sculptors  cor- 
rection. Medinet  Habu. 


SCULPTORS    TOOLS.  221 

were  filled  in  with  cement  or  stucco  and  cut  afresh. 
The  cement  has  now  fallen  out,  and  traces  of  the 
first  chiselling  are  once  more  visible  ;  thus  both 
Seti  I.  and  Rameses  III.  have  two  profiles,  one 
scarcely  marked,  the  other  cut  in  high  relief  (fig.  194). 
The  sculptors  of  the  Pharaonic  age  were  not  so 
well  provided  with  tools  as  those  of  our  own  day. 
One  of  the  kneeling  scribes  in  the  Cairo  Museum 
has  been  carved  out  of  limestone  with  the  chisel  ; 
the  flat  lines  made  by  the  tool  are  visible  on  his 
skin.  A  statue  in  grey  serpentine  in  the  same 
collection  shows  traces  of  two 
different  tools  :  the  body  is  marked 
all  over  with  the  point ;  the  head 
is  unfinished,  but  it  has  been 
blocked  out  by  chipping  it  with  a 
small  hammer.  Similar  observa- 
tions and  study  of  the  monuments 

,         ^  .  Fig.  195.— Bow  drill. 

have  shown  that  the  Egyptians 
were  familiar  with  the  drill  (fig.  195),  the  toothed 
chisel,  and  the  gouge,  but  there  has  been  endless 
discussion  as  to  whether  their  metal  tools  were 
iron  or  bronze.  Iron  has  been  considered  out  of 
the  question  for  a  priori  reasons.  It  has  been 
argued  that  it  was  regarded  as  impure,  and  that 
it  must  have  been  impossible  to  employ  it  even 
for  the  most  ignoble  purposes  without  contracting 
impurity  that  would  be  injurious  to  the  soul  both 
in  this  world  and  the  next.  But  the  uncleanness 
of  an  object  has  never  prevented  its  use.  Pigs  were 
impure,  but  they  were  bred  nevertheless  in  consider- 
able   numbers    in    certain    provinces,    for    Herodotus 


222  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

states  that  swine  were  let  loose  in  newly  sown  fields 
in  order  that  they  might  tread  in  the  grain.  Like 
many  things  in  Egypt,  iron  was  pure  or  impure 
according  to  circumstances.  While  certain  legends 
called  it  "  the  bones  of  Typhon,"  and  condemned 
it  as  baneful,  other  equally  ancient  legends  affirmed 
that  it  was  the  actual  metal  of  which  the  sky  was 
made,  and  owing  to  this  authoritative  statement  it 
was  named  ba-en-pet,  the  celestial  metal.  The  only 
metal  found  xn  the  Great  Pyramid  is  a  piece  of  iron, 
and  though  objects  made  of  iron  are  rarely  found 
in  comparison  with  the  immense  numbers  found  in 
copper  and  bronze,  this  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  iron  is  soon  consumed  by  rust,  and 
where  it  has  survived  it  has  only  done  so  owing 
to  a  combination  of  very  exceptional  circumstances. 
It  is  certain  that  the  Egyptians  were  acquainted 
with  iron,  and  made  use  of  it  at  all  periods,  and  it  is 
no  less  certain  that  they  never  possessed  steel.  The 
question  then  arises  how  they  managed  to  work  the 
hardest  stones,  such  as  we  almost  hesitate  to  attempt 
to-day — diorite,  basalt,  serpentine,  and  syenite.  The 
various  manufacturers  of  antiquities  who  work  granite 
for  the  benefit  of  tourists  have  solved  the  question. 
They  work  with  twenty  or  more  points  and  chisels 
of  inferior  iron,  which  are  rendered  unusable  by 
a  few  blows.  The  first  one  spoilt,  they  take  another, 
and  so  on,  until  their  store  is  exhausted,  when  they 
take  the  whole  collection  to  the  forge  to  be  put  to 
rights.  The  proceeding  is  neither  so  slow  nor  difficult 
as  might  be  imagined.  There  is  now  in  the  Cairo 
Museum  a  life-size  head  which  was  produced  by  one 


SCULPTORS     METHODS.  223 

of  the  best  forgers  in  Luxor  in  less  than  a  fortnight 
from  a  block  of  black  granite  streaked  with  red. 
I  have  no  doubt  the  ancients  worked  in  the  same 
way ;  they  mastered  the  hardest  stones  by  means 
of  iron,  copper,  and  bronze.  The  method  once 
discovered,  practice  would  teach  them  how  to  work 
with  greater  ease  and  to  produce  as  regular  and 
delicate  work  with  the  tools  they  possessed  as  we 
can  produce  with  ours.  As  soon  as  the  apprentice 
had  learned  to  handle  the  point  and  mallet  the  master 
placed  graduated  models  before  him  that  represented 
the  successive  stages  in  representing  an  animal,  part 
of  a  human  body,  and  the  entire  human  body  from 
the  first  rough  sketch  to  the  finished  work  (fig.  196). 
Every  year  these  trial  pieces  are  found  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  establish  a  progressive  series.  Some 
were  intended  to  teach  carving  in  bas-relief  and 
others  for  practice  in  statuary,  and  they  show  us 
the  methods  employed   for  both. 

The  Egyptians  understood  three  principal  forms 
of  bas-relief — cither  by  simple  engraving  with  the 
point  or  by  cutting  away  the  ground  and  allowing 
the  figures  to  stand  out,  or  again  by  leaving  the 
background  untouched  and  sinking  the  figures  them- 
selves, modelling  them  in  relief  in  the  hollow.  The 
first  method  was  very  quickly  accomplished,  but 
it  had  the  disadvantage  of  being  only  very  slightly 
decorative.  Rameses  III.  made  use  of  it  in  several 
places  at  Medinet  HabCi,  but  it  was  generally  applied 
to  stelae  and  small  objects  ;  the  risk  of  breakage  was 
small,  and  it  necessitated  no  re-dressing  of  the  face, 
and  there  were  no  projections  to  be   endangered  by 


224 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


blows  or  chipping.     The   second  method  was    most 
in  use,  and  appears  to  have  been  taught  in  the  schools 


Fig.  196.— Sculptor's  trial  piece,  Eighteenth  Dynast}-. 

in  preference  to  the  others.  The  models  were  small 
square  or  oblong  tablets,  squared  off  to  enable  the 
pupil  to  enlarge  or  reduce  the  design  without  altering 


SCULPTORS     MODELS.  22  5 

the  proportions.  Some  of  these  models  were  worked 
on  both  sides,  but  more  frequently  on  one  side  only. 
The  subjects  include  an  ox,  the  head  of  an  ape,  a 
ram,  a  lion,  or  of  a  divinity  ;  occasionally  we  find 
the  design  repeated,  merely  outlined  on  the  left  and 
finished  in  detail  on  the  rii^ht.  In  no  instance  does 
the  relief  exceed  i  inch,  and  it  is  generally  even 
less.  This  is  no  indication  that  the  Egyptian  could 
not  work  in  very  much  higher  relief.  At  Medinet 
Habu  and  at  Karnak,  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
temple  and  where  the  carvings  are  exposed  to  the 
full  glare  of  sunlight,  the  projection  is  as  much  as 
2h  inches,  both  in  granite  and  in  limestone.  If  they 
were  less  deep,  the  figures  would  be  absorbed  and 
lost  in  the  glare,  and  only  a  confusion  of  lines  would 
be  visible  to  the  spectators  below. 

Models  intended  for  the  study  of  statuary  in  the 
round  are  even  more  instructive.  Many  of  them  are 
plaster  casts  of  works  of  art  known  in  the  schools. 
Every  part  of  the  body,  the  head,  the  arms,  legs,  and 
trunk  were  cast  separately.  In  order  to  make  an 
entire  body,  the  various  parts  were  selected  and  built 
up  as  required  into  a  statue  of  a  man  or  a  woman, 
kneeling  or  standing,  seated  on  a  chair  or  squatting 
on  the  heels,  the  arms  extended  or  hanging  down. 
This  curious  collection  was  found  at  Tanis,  and 
dates  probably  from  Ptolemaic  times.  Students' 
models  of  the  Pharaonic  period  are  in  soft  limestone, 
and  almost  all  of  them  represent  the  reigning 
sovereign.  They  are  cubical  in  shape,  and  measure 
about  lo  inches.  On  one  side  cross  lines  were 
drawn  at  right  angles,  which  regulated  the  relatix'e 
15 


226  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

position  of  the  features.  Then  on  the  opposite  face 
the  work  was  begun  according  to  the  scale  given 
on  the  reverse.  On  the  first  block  a  mere  oval  was 
designed  ;  a  projection  in  the  middle  and  two  de- 
pressions to  right  and  left  indicated  vaguely  the 
position  of  the  nose  and  eyes.  The  form  assumes 
more  definite  lines  as  we  pass  from  one  block  to 
another,  and  the  face  gradually  emerges  from  the 
stone.  The  contours  of  the  face  are  regulated  by 
lines  drawn  by  the  artist  from  top  to  bottom  of  the 
block,  the  angles  are  cut  away,  and  worked  into 
correct  form,  the  features  begin  to  appear,  the  eye 
is  hollowed  out,  the  nose  and  mouth  assume  their 
proper  forms.  By  the  time  we  reach  the  last  block 
all  is  complete  except  the  uraius  and  details  of  the 
head-dress.  We  have  no  school  piece  in  granite  or 
basalt,  but,  like  our  monumental  masons,  the  Egyptians 
always  kept  in  hand  a  stock  of  half-finished  statues 
in  hard  stone  that  could  be  completed  in  a  few  hours. 
The  hands,  the  feet,  and  the  bust  only  required  a 
few  final  touches,  but  the  head  was  scarcely  blocked 
out  and  the  clothing  was  only  sketched  ;  half  a  day's 
work  would  be  sufficient  to  transform  the  head  into 
a  portrait  of  the  purchaser  and  to  arrange  the  short 
skirt  according  to  the  newest  fashion.  Two  or  three 
of  these  unfinished  statues  show  us  the  method  of 
procedure  as  completely  as  if  we  possessed  a  series 
of  teachers'  models.  The  regular  continuous  cutting 
of  limestone  could  not  be  applied  to  volcanic  rock, 
which  could  only  be  worked  by  means  of  the  point. 
When  by  expenditure  of  time  and  patience  the 
desired    result  had    been    reached,   there    would    still 


SCULPTORS    METHODS.  227 

be  various  rough  places,  nodules  of  heterogeneous 
substances  that  the  sculptor  had  not  dared  to  meddle 
with  for  fear  of  injuring  the  surrounding  work,  and 
for  these  he  had  to  employ  another  implement. 
Over  the  projection  he  placed  the  sharp  edge  of 
a  pebble,  and  on  this  he  dealt  cautious  blows  with 
a  rounded  pebble  until  the  projection  \va.s  reduced 
to  powder  under  the  blows  of  this  novel  axe  and 
mallet. 

After  these  defects  had  been  corrected,  the  monu- 
ment would  still  look  dull  and  lacking  in  finish.  It 
required  polishing  in  order  to  efface  the  marks  of  the 
point  and  mallet.  The  operation  was  exceedingly- 
delicate  ;  an  unlucky  slip  of  the  hand,  one  moment 
of  carelessness,  and  the  work  would  be  injured  past 
repair.  The  dexterity  of  the  workmen  rendered 
such  a  catastrophe  very  rare.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  highly  polished  statue  of  Sebekemsaf  at  Cairo, 
or  the  colossal  figure  of  Rameses  II.  at  Luxor.  The 
play  of  light  at  first  prevents  the  eye  seizing  the 
delicacy  of  the  work,  but  by  placing  ourselves  in  a 
favourable  light,  we  find  that  the  detail  of  the  knee 
and  chest,  of  the  shoulder  and  face,  are  no  less  finely 
rendered  in  granite  than  in  limestone.  The  Egyptian 
sculptures  are  no  more  injured  by  the  very  high 
polish  than  was  the  work  of  Italian  sculptors  of  the 
Renaissance. 

After  leaving  the  hands  of  the  sculptor  the  work 
passed  into  those  of  the  painter.  A  sandstone  or 
limestone  figure  would  not  be  considered  complete 
if  it  were  allow^ed  to  retain  the  natural  colour  of  the 
stone,   and   the  statues   were    painted   from    head    to 


228  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

foot.  In  bas-reliefs  the  background  was  usually  left 
plain,  but  the  figures  were  coloured.  In  this  respect 
the  Egyptians  were  far  better  equipped  than  is  usually 
supposed.  The  most  ancient  painters'  palettes — and 
some  are  known  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty — have  separate 
divisions  for  yellow,  red,  blue,  brown,  white,  black, 
and  green.  Others  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  pro- 
vided for  three  varieties  of  yellow,  three  of  brown, 
and  two  each  of  red,  blue,  and  green,  at  least  fourteen 
or  sixteen  different  shades.  Black  was  obtained  by 
burning  the  bones  of  animals  ;  w^hite  was  made  of 
gypsum  mixed  with  honey  or  albumen  ;  the  yellows 
are  ochre  or  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  the  orpiment  of  our 
modern  painters  ;  the  reds  are  ochre,  cinnabar,  or 
vermilion  ;  the  blues  are  lapis  lazuli,  or  sulphate  of 
copper.  If  the  materials  were  rare  or  costly,  local 
productions  were  substituted  for  them.  Lapis  lazuli 
was  replaced  by  blue  frit  coloured  with  sulphate  of 
copper  and  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  The 
colours  were  kept  in  small  bags,  and  doled  out  when 
required,  slightly  moistened  with  water  containing  a 
little  gum  tragacanth.  This  was  applied  by  means 
of  a  reed-pen  or  a  hair-brush,  of  which  the  artist 
usually  employed  only  two,  one  with  a  fine  point  for 
outlines  and  delicate  parts  of  the  work,  and  a  broad 
one  for  large  surfaces.  When  well  prepared  the 
pigments  w^ere  remarkably  solid,  and  have  scarcely 
changed  during  the  course  of  centuries.  Where  the 
reds  have  darkened,  the  greens  faded,  or  the  blues 
turned  green  or  grey,  it  is  only  on  the  surface,  the 
colours  below  are  still  brilliant  and  unchanged. 
Until   the   Theban    period    no   precaution   was   taken 


PIGMENTS   AND   COLOURING.  229 

to  preserve  them  from  the  action  of  air  and  light  ; 
about  the  time  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty  the  custom 
arose  of  covering  them  with  a  transparent  varnish 
soluble  in  water,  which  was  probably  the  gum  of 
some  variety  of  acacia.  This  varnish  was  not  applied 
universally ;  some  painters  used  it  for  the  entire 
picture,  others  merely  varnished  the  ornaments  and 
accessories,  and  omitted  the  flesh  tints  and  clothing. 
In  course  of  time  it  cracked,  and  became  so  dark  as 
to  damage  the  pictures  it  was  intended  to  preserve. 
The  Egyptians  no  doubt  realised  the  mischief  that 
attended  its  use,  for  we  do  not  meet  with  it  after  the 
Twenty-sixth  Dynasty. 

The  Egyptians  used  flat,  uniform  washes  of  colour  ; 
they  did  not  paint  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  they 
illuminated.  Just  as  in  drawing  they  rendered  the 
outline  and  almost  entirely  suppressed  the  internal 
modelling,  so  in  painting  they  simplified  the  colouring 
and  merged  all  variety  of  tones  and  play  of  light 
and  shade  in  one  uniform  tint.  Egyptian  painting 
is  never  entirely  true  nor  yet  entirely  false,  it  follows 
nature  as  closely  as  possible,  but  does  not  attempt  to 
imitate  it  faithfully,  sometimes  understating,  some- 
times exaggerating  and  substituting  ideal  conven- 
tional renderings  for  the  visible  reality.  Water  is 
always  blue,  either  plain  or  spaced,  with  black  zig-zag 
lines.  The  buff  and  bluish  hues  of  the  vulture  are 
rendered  by  vivid  red  and  bright  blue  :  the  flesh 
tints  of  the  men  are  brown,  those  of  the  women  are 
yellow.  The  colour  assigned  to  each  object  was 
taught  in  the  schools,  and  the  convention,  once 
thoroughly     established,    was     transmitted    without 


230  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

change  from  one  generation  to  another.  At  various 
times  some  adventurous  artist  would  attempt  to 
break  through  these  conventions.  Thus  in  the  Sixth 
Dynasty  tombs  at  Deir  el  Gebrawi  there  are  instances 
of  women  depicted  with  brown  skins.  There  are 
men  with  yellow  skins  at  Saqqara  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty,  at  Meir  in  tombs  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty, 
and  at  Abu  Simbel  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  while 
in  the  tombs  of  Thebes  and  Abydos,  about  the 
period  of  Thothmes  IV.  or  Horemheb,  and  at  El  Kab 
and  Beit  el  Wally  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  there 
occur  figures  with  bright  rose  or  crimson  flesh  tints. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  the  im- 
pression produced  by  this  artificial  colouring  was 
crude  and  discordant.  Even  in  works  of  small  size, 
such  as  illuminated  copies  of  the  Book  of  tJie  Dead, 
the  decoration  of  coffins,  or  of  funerary  coffers,  there 
is  harmony  and  softness  of  colouring.  The  most 
vivid  tones  are  boldly  placed  in  juxtaposition,  but 
with  full  knowledge  of  their  relations  to  each  other, 
and  of  the  phenomena  which  naturally  result  from 
those  relations.  They  do  not  jar,  nor  do  they  kill 
one  another  ;  each  has  its  full  value,  and  by  their 
proximity  to  each  other  they  give  rise  to  half-tones 
that  harmonise  with  them. 

When  we  pass  from  small  to  great,  from  a  leaf  of 
papyrus  or  a  panel  of  sycamore-wood  to  the  walls  of 
tombs  and  temples,  we  find  the  habitual  use  of  flat 
tints  both  soothing  and  pleasant  to  the  eye.  Every 
wall  is  treated  as  a  whole,  and  a  harmony  of  colour 
is  preserved  throughout  the  superposed  registers.  In 
some  cases  the  colours  are  distributed  rhythmically 


CONVENTIONAL   COLOURING.  23  I 

or  symmetrically  from  stage  to  stage  and  balance 
one  another,  in  others  one  colour  predominates  and 
determines  the  general  tone  to  which  the  others  are 
subordinated.  The  vividness  of  the  whole  is  always 
proportioned  to  the  amount  of  light  that  will  play  on 
the  wall.  Where  the  halls  are  completely  dark  the 
colour  is  as  brilliant  as  possible,  as  otherwise  it  would 
scarcely  be  observable  by  the  flickering  light  of 
torches  or  lamps.  On  the  outside  walls  and  on  the 
pylons  the  colouring  is  as  vivid  as  it  is  in  the  remotest 
depths  of  rock-tombs.  However  powerful  it  might 
be,  the  glaring  effect  was  neutrahsed  by  the  sun.  In 
places  where  twilight  reigned,  such  as  beneath  the 
temple  porticoes  and  in  the  antechambers  of  tombs, 
the  colouring  is  soft  and  subdued.  Painting  in  Egypt 
was  only  the  humble  handmaid  of  architecture  and 
sculpture.  To  compare  it  with  our  own,  or  even  witli 
that  of  the  Greeks,  is  not  to  be  thought  of,  but  if  we 
accept  it  for  what  it  is  in  the  secondary  position 
assigned  to  it,  we  must  admit  that  it  possesses  some 
unusual  merits.  It  excelled  for  large  decorative 
schemes,  and  if  the  fashion  of  painting  our  mansions 
and  public  buildings  should  ever  return,  we  should 
lose  nothing  by  making  a  study  of  Egyptian  methods 
and  conventions. 

3. — SCULPTURE. 

It  is  now  possible  for  us  to  trace  to  some  extent 
the  development  of  sculpture  in  Egypt  from  the  rude 
attempts  of  the  earliest  Thinite  period.  In  Oxford, 
at  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  are  two  statues  found  at 
Koptos,  representing  the  local  deity.     The  modelling 


23^ 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


is  exceedingly  rough  ;  the  arms  project  but  sHghtly 
from  the  bodv,  and  the  lecjs  are  merely  indicated  bv^ 


a  groove   in  front  and  behind, 
each  figure  is  wound  a  girdle. 


Round  the  body  of 
The  same   museum 


CARVINGS   OK    THE    EAKLY    PERIOD. 


233 


possesses  a  statue  found  at  Hierakonpolis  even  more 
slightly  worked.  All  three  represent  standing  figures, 
and  are  more  than  life-size. 

In  marked  contrast  to  these  figures  are  the  finely 
carved  limestone  maceheads  and  the  great  palettes  of 
schist  or  slate.  On  some 
of  these  the  human  figure 
is  shown  in  correct  perspec- 
tive, but  on  the  palette  of 
King  Narmer  (figs.  197, 
198)  we  find  the  strange 
conventional  method  of 
representing  the  human 
figure  that  obtained 
throughout  the  history  of 
Egypt.  Executed  in  very 
low  relief,  these  carvings 
show  the  mastery  of  line 
and  composition  which  the 
sculptors  of  their  day  were 
to  hand  down  to  posterity. 
Some  small  ivory  figures 
carved  in  the  round  are 
known  of  this  period,  which 
are  rendered  with  much 
spirit.  The  earliest  named 
royal  statue  dates  from  the 

early  part  of  the  Third  Dynasty.  There  is  a  seated 
figure  of  King  Khasekhemui  in  the  Cairo  Museum 
carved  in  schist,  and  another  in  limestone  is  to  be 
seen  in  Oxford.  The  figures  are  similar  in  attitude 
j^nd  costume.    The  pose  is  sornewhat  awkward,  bqt  the 


Fig.  199. — King  Khasekhemui, 
Third  Dynasty,  at  Oxford. 


234 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


conventional  attitude  of  later  Egyptian  art  is  already 
adopted  (fig.  199).  The  face  shows  calm  power  and 
alert  expression.  The  excellence  of  the  work,  not- 
withstanding some  roughness  of  execution,  proves  that 
the  Pharaoh  of  that  period  could  command  the  services 
of  an  experienced  sculptor,  trained  in  a  school  that 
was  rapidly  gaining  power  and  certainty  of  treatment. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  future  excavations  will  pro- 


Fig.  200.- 


•Rahotep,  Third  Dynast}^,  fiom  Medu:n. 


ducc  many  more  works  of  the  primitive  dynasties 
that  yet  sleep  undiscovered  beneath  the  sands  of 
Egypt.  Those  of  the  Old  Kingdom  are  daily  ex- 
humed from  the  tombs  and  temples  scattered  over 
the  great  pyramid  area.  These  have  not  yielded 
Egyptian  art  as  a  whole,  but  they  have  familiarised 
us  with  one  of  its  schools,  the  school  of  Memphis. 
There  were  other  schools,  notably  those  of  the  Delta, 
Hermopolis,    Ekhmim,    Abydos,   Denderah,    Thebes, 


STATUARY   OF   THE   OLD    EMPIRE. 


235 


Assiian,  whose  work  does  not  begin  to  appear  earlier 
than  about  the  Sixth  Dynasty.  Memphis  was  the 
capital,  and  the  presence  of  the  Pharaoh  must  have 
attracted  all  the  talent  of  the  vassal  principalities. 
Judging  from  the  result  of  excavation  in  the  Mem- 
phite  necropolis  alone,  it  is  possible  to  determine  the 
characteristics  of  both  sculpture  and  painting  in  the 


Fig.  201, — Nefert,  wife  of  Rahotep,  Third  Dynasty,  from  MedCim. 

time  of  Seneferu  and  his  successors  with  as  much 
exactness  as  if  we  were  already  in  possession  of  all 
the  monuments  which  the  valley  of  the  Nile  still  holds 
in  reserve  for  future  explorers. 

Of  the  close  of  the  Third  Dynasty  we  have 
two  remarkable  works  from  Mediim.  Rahotep 
(fig.  200),  notwithstanding  his  high  title  of  General, 
is  of  humble  birth,     Well-made  and  powerfully  built 


236 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


III   1^^    9    JL  *.i 


as  he  is,  there  is  a  rustic  element  of  surprise  and 
subserviency  in  his  expression.  His  wife  Nefert 
(fig.  201),  on  the  contrary,  is  a  princess  of  the  blood 
royal,  and  her  whole  figure  denotes  dignity  and 
resolution,  which  are  very  skilfully  rendered  by  the 
sculptor.  She  is  wearing  a  close-fitting  garment 
opening  in  a  point  in  front. 
Beneath  the  material  the 
shoulders,  the  bosom,  the  body, 
and  the  thighs  are  modelled 
with  a  grace  and  purity  of  out- 
line which  it  is  impossible  to 
praise  too  highly.  The  round, 
plump  face  is  surrounded  by 
a  ponderous  wig,  confined  by 
a  richly  ornamental  bandeau. 
Here,  as  in  most  statues  of 
women  of  the  Old  Kingdom, 
the  natural  hair  appears  on  the 
forehead  below  the  wig.  Both 
husband  and  wife  are  in  lime- 
stone, and  are  painted,  the 
husband  a  reddish  brown,  the 
wife  a  light  buff. 

The  six  wooden  panels  of 
the  tomb  of  Hesi  in  the  Cairo  Museum  are  perhaps 
the  most  important  that  we  possess  of  their  kind. 
There  is  no  grouping.  In  each  of  them  Hesi  is 
either  standing  (fig.  202)  or  sitting,  and  above  his 
head  are  four  or  five  lines  of  hieroglyphs,  but  the 
purity  of  line,  the  rendering  of  the  human  frame, 
and  the  fineness  of  execution  are  admirable.     Never 


Fig.  202. — Panel  from  tomb 
of  Hesi,  Third  Dvnastv. 


THE   GREAT   SPHINX.  237 

has   wood  been  carved  by  a  more   skilful   hand   nor 
with  a  more  delicate  chisel. 

But  the  art  of  the  sculptor  was  not  steadily 
progressive.  The  contemporary  sculptors  of  any 
given  period  were  not  all  possessed  of  equal  skill, 
and  though  several  might  show  themselves  capable 
of  good  work,  there  would  be  others  who  were  merely 
craftsmen,  and  we  must  beware  of  mistaking  what  is 
due  to  their  incompetence  or  inexperience  for  archaic 
clumsiness.  Thus  there  are  certain  pieces  known  to 
belong  to  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Dynasties  which 
possess  all  the  characteristics  which  are  quoted  as 
belonging  to  works  of  far  greater  antiquity. 

One  of  the  most  ancient  and  remarkable  pieces  of 
statuary  known  is  a  colossus — the  sphinx  of  Gizeh. 
Its  date  has  been  the  subject  of  endless  discussion. 
Recent  discoveries  point  to  its  being  Khafra  himself, 
a  portrait  head  of  the  Pharaoh  with  the  body  of 
a  lion  guarding  his  pyramid  and  temples  from  all 
evil  by  the  magic  power  possessed  by  a  sphinx,  or, 
as  others  have  thought,  it  may  be  far  older,  a  relic  of 
even  more  remote  times. 

Carved  out  of  the  solid  rock  at  the  extreme  edge 
of  the  desert,  the  sphinx  seems  to  raise  his  kingly 
head,  conscious  of  divine  descent,  in  order  to  be  the 
first  to  behold  the  rising  of  his  father  the  sun  (fig.  203). 
For  centuries  it  was  buried  to  the  chin  in  the  sand, 
but  even  this  did  not  preserve  it  from  ruin.  The 
battered  body  now  only  bears  a  general  resemblance 
to  a  lion,  the  feet  and  chest,  repaired  under  the 
Ptolemies  and  Caesars,  retain  only  a  portion  of  the 
stone  facing  with   which  they  were  then  covered  to 


238 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


conceal  the  ravages  of  time.     The  lower  part  of  the 
head-dress  has  fallen  away,  and  the  narrow  portion  of 


^A.  -^ 


g^-^^^-' 


Fig.  203. — The  Great  Sphinx  of  Gizeh. 

neck  still  remaining  does  not  seem  strong  enough  to 
support  the  weight  of  the  head.     The  nose  and  beard 


MEMPHITE   ART.  239 

have  been  broken  by  fanatics,  and  the  red  colour 
that  gave  Hfe  to  the  features  is  ahnost  entirely 
effaced.  And  yet  the  whole  figure  in  its  decay 
preserves  a  commanding  expression  of  power  and 
grandeur.  The  eyes  gaze  into  the  distance  with  an 
intensity  of  profound  thought,  the  mouth  still  smiles, 
the  mutilated  face  breathes  power  and  repose.  The 
art  that  conceived  and  carved  this  prodigious  statue 
out  of  the  solid  rock  is  a  complete  art,  master  of 
itself,  certain  of  its  results. 

The  artists  of  Memphis  excelled  in  the  use  of  the 
brush  and  chisel,  and  the  scenes  traced  by  them  in 
thousands  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs  bear  witness  to 
unusual  artistic  ability.  The  relief  is  low,  the  colour- 
ing sober,  and  the  composition  is  good.  Buildings, 
trees,  vegetation,  and  the  incidents  of  country  life  are 
summarily  indicated,  and  introduced  only  when  they 
are  absolutely  indispensable  for  complete  under- 
standing of  the  scene  represented.  Men  and  animals, 
on  the  contrary,  are  treated  with  abundance  of  detail 
and  with  a  fidelity  and  facility  of  rendering  such  as 
w^e  rarely   find  rivalled  in  the  schools  of  later  date. 

In  the  statues  we  do  not  find  the  same  variety  of 
attitude  that  we  observe  in  the  pictured  scenes. 
A  professional  mourner,  a  woman  grinding  corn,  the 
baker  kneading  bread,  are  as  rare  in  the  round  as 
they  are  numerous  in  bas-relief.  In  the  greater 
number  of  statues  the  figure  is  either  walking  with 
one  leg  advanced  or  seated  on  a  chair  or  a  block  of 
stone  ;  sometimes  kneeling,  more  often  seated  cross- 
legged,  the  body  upright,  and  the  legs  flat  on  the 
ground    in    the   squatting    attitude    of    the    modern 


240  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

fellahin.  This  monotony  is  explained  by  the  purpose 
for  which  these  statues  were  made.  They  represented 
the  actual  body  of  the  individual  for  whom  the  tomb 
or  temple  was  built,  and  the  bodies  of  his  relations 
and  retainers,  his  slaves,  and  the  members  of  his 
household.  The  master  is  always  either  sitting  or 
standing,  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  give  him  any 
other  position.  The  tomb  was,  in  fact,  the  eternal 
house  where  he  continued  the  life  he  formerly  lived 
in  this  world,  and  the  scenes  depicted  on  the  walls 
show  the  details  of  his  life  after  death.  In  one  place 
he  is  presiding  over  the  preliminaries  of  the  offerings 
by  which  he  is  to  be  fed,  sowing  and  harvesting,  the 
care  of  cattle,  fishing,  hunting,  and  working  at  various 
trades,  and  he  superintends  all  zvorks  that  are  done  for 
the  dwelling-place  of  eternity  \  for  this  he  stands  with 
raised  head,  his  arms  either  hanging  down  or  holding 
a  staff  and  baton.  Elsewhere  he  is  provided  with  a 
succession  of  dishes  containing  offerings,  and  for  this 
he  is  seated  at  ease  in  a  chair  of  state.  These  two 
positions  of  the  bas-reliefs  he  also  retains  in  the 
statues.  Standing,  he  is  supposed  to  receive  the 
homage  of  his  vassals  ;  seated,  he  shares  the  family 
meals.  The  household  also  adopt  the  attitude  adapted 
to  their  rank  and  occupation.  The  wife  stands  by  his 
side,  or  she  is  seated  on  the  same  seat  with  him,  or  on 
a  separate  one,  or  she  is  crouched  at  his  feet  as  she 
did  during  life.  The  son  is  dressed  like  a  child  if  the 
statue  was  made  during  his  infancy,  or  if  he  was 
represented  when  a  man  he  has  the  bearing  and 
equipments  proper  to  his  position.  The  slaves  are 
grinding   the   corn,   the   cellarers   are  sealing   up  the 


KA   STATUES.  24 1 

wine-jars,  the  mourners  are  weeping  and  tearing  their 
hair.  His  social  world  followed  the  Egyptian  to  the 
tomb  and  there  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  him 
that  it  had  done  before  his  death.  The  Pharaoh 
must  still  remain  the  monarch,  seated  on  his  throne, 
protected  by  the  sacred  serpent  the  ura^us,  or  over- 
shadowed by  the  guardian  hawk.  Whether,  like 
Menkaura,  he  is  standing  in  company  with  the  gods, 
or  with  his  wife  in  the  affectionate  attitude  adopted 
by  sovereign  and  subjects  alike,  he  is  unmistakably 
Pharaoh,  conscious  of  supreme  power,  of  divine 
descent,  and  of  actual  divinity. 

The  influence  exerted  on  the  sculptor  by  this 
conception  of  the  other  world  did  not  end  here.  As 
soon  as  the  ka  statue  was  regarded  as  the  posthu- 
mous support  of  the  double,  it  became  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  new  body  of  stone  should  be  a 
copy — even  if  only  a  summary  one — of  the  body 
of  flesh  in  order  that  the  double  might  adapt  itself 
with  ease  to  its  new  support.  The  head  is  there- 
fore a  faithful  portrait,  while  the  body,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  that  of  a  person  in  the  highest  state  of 
development  in  order  that  he  may  fully  enjoy  his 
physical  powers  in  the  company  of  the  gods.  The 
men  are  always  in  the  prime  of  life,  and  their 
women  have  the  slender  proportions  of  girlhood. 
This  ideal  was  only  abandoned  when  the  anomaly 
was  too  obvious.  The  statue  of  a  dwarf  possessed 
all  the  innate  deformities  of  a  dwarf,  for  if  an 
ordinary  body  were  placed  in  the  tomb,  the  double 
accustomed  to  the  deformities  of  its  members  wculd 
be  unable  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  new  con- 
16 


242  PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 

ditions,  and  would  be  deprived  of  the  support  neces- 
sary for  further  existence.  The  sculptor  was  only  at 
liberty  to  vary  the  details  and  general  accessories  ;  he 
could  make  no  change  in  the  usual  attitude  and 
resemblance  without  diminishing  the  utility  of  his 
work. 

This  continued  repetition  of  pose  and  subject  pro- 
duces a  feeling  of  monotony  in  the  mind  of  the 
spectator,  an  impression  which  is  increased  by  the 
peculiar  appearance  of  the  columns  or  shafts  which 
are  placed  behind  the  statues.  These  are  sometimes 
rectangular  and  end  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  or  they 
narrow  near  the  top  and  are  lost  in  the  hair,  or  the 
top  is  rounded  and  appears  above  the  head.  The 
arms  are  often  separated  from  the  body,  they  are  in 
one  piece  with  the  sides  and  hips.  When  the  leg  is 
advanced  for  walking  it  is  often  united  up  the  entire 
length  to  the  pediment  at  the  back  by  a  narrow  band 
of  stone.  It  may  be  thought  that  this  is  accounted 
for  by  the  lack  of  adequate  tools,  and  that  the  sculptor 
hesitated  to  remove  the  superfluous  stone  for  fear  of 
injuring  the  statue.  This  explanation  may  hold  good 
for  the  earliest  work,  but  not  after  the  Fourth  Dynasty, 
for  we  can  point  to  many  examples  even  in  granite 
where  all  the  limbs  are  free,  whether  they  are 
worked  with  the  chisel  or  with  the  drill.  Although 
the  use  of  tenons  persisted  to  the  last,  it  was  not 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  removing  them,  but  from  an 
exaggerated  respect  for  the  teaching  of  former  ages. 

Until  recently  very  few  museums  possessed  statues 
of  the  Memphite  school.  Egypt  and  Paris,  besides 
many   of  inferior   work,  possessed  about  twenty  fine 


STATUARY   OF   THE   OLD   EMPIRE. 


243 


examples:  the  crossed-legged  scribe,  Sckhemka,  and 
Pahurnefer  in  Paris  ;  the  Sheikh  el  Be/ed,  Khafra, 
Ranefer,  the  kneeling  scribe,  and  a  cross-legged  scribe 
at  Cairo.  Recent  excavations  in  the  Pyramid  area 
have  yielded  many  more  fine  works  of  this  period. 
Among  the  most  perfect  we  have  the  statues  of 
Menkaura  and  the  wonderful 
series  of  slate  triads  from  his 
valley  temple  ;  the  alabaster 
statuette  that  probably  repre- 
sents Khufu  (Kheops)  and  the 
statue  of  Ne-user-ra  in  rose 
granite.  A  very  fine  series  of 
limestone  statuettes  painted 
and  quite  uninjured  have  been 
recovered  by  Di*.  Reisner  from 
serdabs  of  Fourth  and  Fifth 
Dynasty  mastabas  at  Gizeh. 
These  statuettes  show  the  same 
vigorous  characteristics  as  the 
larger  statues,  and  many  of 
them  are  exceedingly  fine. 
Some  of  them  are  now  at 
Boston. 

Khafra  is  a  king  (fig.  204). 
He  sits  squarely  and  proudly  on  the  throne  of  the 
Pharaohs,  his  hands  on  his  knees,  his  head  raised, 
and  his  gaze  assured.  If  the  inscription  that  bears 
his  name  were  destroyed  and  all  insignia  of  his 
rank  obliterated,  we  should  still  recognise  him  as 
a  king  by  his  bearing.  Every  trait  shows  the  man 
accustomed    from    infancy    to    feel    himself    invested 


Fig.  204.  — King  Khafra, 
Fourth  Dynasty. 


244  PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 

with  supreme  authority.  His  statue  carved  in  diorite 
was  found  with  others  less  perfect  in  his  valley 
temple.  Of  Khufu  we  possess  as  a  certainty  only 
a  small  ivory  carving,  now  at  Cairo,  but  minute 
as  it  is,  it  is  a  fine  piece  of  portraiture  that 
will  bear  examination  through  a  magnifying-glass. 
The  valley  temple  of  Menkaura  has  yielded  royal 
statues  that  are  exceedingly  fine.  The  slate  triads 
are  worked  with  extraordinary  finish  of  texture.  In 
the  triad  now  at  Boston  the  king  is  standing  by  the 
side  of  the  goddess  Hathor,  and  wears  the  crown  of 
Upper  Egypt  and  the  false  beard.  In  the  centre  is 
a  seated  figure  of  the  ^oddess,  her  left  arm  round  the 
king,  and  her  right  hand  on  his  arm.  On  her  other 
side  is  the  goddess  of  the  nome.  A  very  fine  group 
is  of  Menkaura  and  his  queen  carved  in  a  fine  dark 
slate.  The  portraits  are  life-like,  and  a  comparison 
of  the  numerous  statues  shows  that  they  belong  to 
two  periods  ;  some  represent  Menkaura  early  in  his 
reign,  and  others  as  an  older  man.  A  beautiful  head 
carved  in  alabaster  of  Shepseskaf,  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, was  found  among  a  mass  of  fragments.  The 
face  is  that  of  a  youth  wearing  the  royal  ur^eus.  The 
shrewd  somewhat  projecting  under-lip  closely  repre- 
sents that  of  his  father.  The  mouth  is  firmly  set  and 
the  cheery  powerful  face  is  strongly  individual. 

The  bronze  statue  of  Pepi  I.  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty 
found  by  Quibell  at  Kom  el  Ahmar  represents  the 
Pharaoh  standing,  the  right  arm  down,  the  left  raised 
to  hold  the  sceptre  or  staff.  The  bust,  legs,  and  arms 
were  hammered  out  and  fitted  together  most  accu- 
rately ;  the  face,  hands,  and  feet  were  cast.      Round 


STATUARY   OF    THE    OLD    EMPIRE.  245 

the  loins  was  a  dress  of  i^^old,  and  a  wig  of  blue  stone 
was  on  the  head,  but  both  have  disappeared.  The 
eyes  were  black  and  white  enamel  inserted  in  bronze 
eyelids. 

Rancfer  belonged  to  one  of  the  great  noble  families 
of  his  time.  He  stands  upright  in  the  attitude  of  a 
prince  inspecting  a  march-past  of  his  vassals,  but 
he  does  not  impress  us  with  the  intense  power  and 
calm  decision  of  Khafra. 

The  original  of  the  cross-legged  scribe  at  the  Louvre 
was  not  a  handsome  man  (fig.  205),  but  the  fidelity  and 
vigour  of  his  portrait  compensate  in  great  measure 
for  what  it  lacks  in  ideal  beauty.  With  his  legs  crossed 
beneath  him  in  one  of  the  attitudes  familiar  to 
Orientals,  but  almost  impossible  for  a  European  to 
maintain,  the  upright  bust  well  balanced  from  the 
hips,  his  head  raised,  his  hand  holding  the  reed-pen, 
and  placed  ready  on  the  outstretched  papyrus,  he 
still  waits,  as  he  has  done  for  six  hundred  year.s,  for 
the  moment  when  his  master  will  consent  to  resume 
his  interrupted  dictation.  The  face  is  almost  square, 
the  strongly  marked  features  indicate  a  man  of  mature 
age,  the  broad  thin-lipped  mouth  is  slightly  raised 
at  the  corners,  which  are  almost  lost  in  the  projec- 
tion of  the  surrounding  muscle,  the  cheeks  are  hard 
and  bony,  the  thick  heavy  ears  stand  out  from  the 
head,  and  the  hair  is  coarse  and  closely  cropped  over 
the  low  forehead.  The  large  well-opened  eyes  owe 
their  peculiar  vivacity  to  an  ingenious  contrivance  of 
the  ancient  artist.  The  stone  orbit  that  forms  the 
setting  has  been  hollowed  out  and  filled  with  black 
and  white  enamel ;  a  bronze  setting  defines  the  edge 


246 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


of  the  eyelids,  while  a  small  spangle  of  ebony  inserted 
behind  the  iris  arrests  and  reflects  the  light  and  gives 
an  appearance  of  actual  sight.  The  flesh  is  slightly 
flaccid,  as  it  should  be  with  a  man  of  middle  age,  whose 


Fig.  205. — Cross-legged  scribe  at  the  Louvre,  Old  Kingdom. 

occupations  do  not  admit  of  actix'e  exercise.  The 
back  and  arms  stand  out  well,  the  hands  are  hard  and 
bony,  the  fingers  are  unusually  long,  the  details  of  the 
knees  are   carefully   modelled.      The  whole   body   is 


STATUARY   OF   THE   OLD    EMPIRE. 


247 


governed  by  the  dominating  sense  of  waiting,  which 
also   prevails   in    the    expression    of   the    face.      The 
muscles  of  the  arm,  the  bust,  and  shoulder  are  all  in 
semi-repose,  ready  to  resume  their  interrupted  task. 
The  cross-legged  scribe  of  Cairo  (fig.  206)  was  dis- 


Fig.  206.- -Cross-legged  scribe,  from  Saqqara. 


covered  by  M.  de  Morgan  at  Saqqara  in  1893.  This 
statue  exhibits  much  the  same  vigour  of  expression 
and  execution  as  its  fellow  of  the  Louvre,  while 
representing  a  young  man  of  full,  firm,  and  supple 
figure. 

The  Sheikh  el  Beled  (fig.  207),  Raemka,  was  over- 
seer  of    the   works,    probably   one   of    the    chiefs    of 


248 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


the  corvee  who  built  the  Great  Pyramids.  By  birth 
one  of  the  middle  class,  he  is  very  conscious  of  the 
importance  conferred  on  him  by  his  office,  and  his 
whole  bearing  denotes  contentment  and  official  self- 
assurance.  We  seem  to  see  him  with  his  knotted 
staff  of  acacia-wood  in  his  hand 
superintending  his  gangs  of  work- 
men. The  body  is  stout  and  heavy, 
the  neck  is  thick,  the  head,  despite 
its  vulgarity  (fig.  2o8),  is  not  wanting 
in  energy,  the  eyes  are  inlaid.  The 
original  feet  have  perished  and  new 
ones  have  been  provided.  When 
the  figure  was  first  discovered  at 
Saqqara,  it  closely  resembled  the 
SJieikJi  el  Beled,  the  headman  of 
the  place.  The  fellahin  immediately 
named  it  the  SJieikh  el  Beled,  and 
the  name  has  clung  to  it.  It  is 
carved  in  wood,  and  so  is  another 
figure  of  the  same  period  from  an 
adjacent  tomb  (fig.  209).  It  is  now 
a  mere  trunk  without  arms  or  legs, 
yet  enough  remains  to  show  that 
it  represented  a  good  type  of  the 
middle-aged   Egyptian  matron. 

The  kneeling  scribe  of  Cairo  (fig.  210)  must  ha\'e 
belonged  to  one  of  the  lower  ranks  of  a  bureaucracy 
similar  to  that  which  exists  at  the  present  day  on 
the  borders  of  the  Nile.  If  he  had  not  died  more 
than  six  thousand  years  ago  I  could  swear  that  I 
met   him   six   months   ago   in   one  of  the  villages   of 


Fig.  207.  —  Sheikh 
el  Beled,  Old 
Kingdom. 


STATU AKV    OF   THE    OLD    EMPIRE. 


249 


Upper  Eg\pt.  lie  has  just  brought  a  roll  of  papyrus 
or  a  tablet  covered  with  writing  to  be  examined  by 
his  chief.  Kneeling  as  custom  ordained,  his  hands 
crossed,  his  shoulders  stooping,  his  head  slightly 
tilted,  he  waits  in  suspense  until  the  reading  is  over. 
What  were  his  thoughts  as  he  waited  ?  The  scribes 
were  not  without  apprehension  when  they  had  to 
submit    their    work    to    their    superiors.      The    staff 


Fig.  208.— Head  of  the  Sheikh  el  Beled. 


played  a  large  part  in  administrative  relationships, 
and  an  error  in  addition  or  an  order  misunderstood 
was  followed  in  due  course  by  blows.  The  sculptor 
has  rendered  with  inimitable  skill  the  expression  of 
resigned  uncertainty  and  sheepish  gentleness  that 
resulted  from  a  life  passed  entirely  in  servitude. 
The  mouth  smiles,  because  etiquette  enjoined  that 
it  should,  but  there  is  nothing  joyous  in  the  smile, 
while    the    cheeks    and    nose    are   puckered    up    in 


2qo 


PAINTING   AND    SCULPTURE. 


agreement  with  the  expression  of  the   mouth.     The 
enamelled  eyes  have   the  fixed  stare  of  a  man  who 

is  waiting  without  any 
definite  object  on  which 
to  fix  his  gaze  or  con- 
centrate his  thoughts. 
The  face  is  lacking  in 
intelligence  and  vivacity; 
but  then  his  occupation 
did  not  demand  great 
powers  of  mind. 

The  statues  of  the 
scribes  are  in  painted 
limestone,  but  whatever 
the  material,  diorite, 
alabaster,  slate,  wood,  or 
limestone,  the  chiselling 
is  everywhere  free,  subtle, 
and  delicate.  The  head 
of  the  scribe  and  the 
bas-relief  portrait  of  the 
Pharaoh  Menkauhor  in 
the  Louvre,  the  dwarf 
Xemhotep,  and  the 
slaves  preparing  food 
offerings,  at  the  Cairo 
Museum,  are  in  no  wa}' 
inferior  to  the  cross- 
legged  scribe  or  the 
Sheik  J L  el  Be  led.  The 
baker  kneading  his  dough  (fig.  21 1)  belongs  entirely 
to    his    work.     The    flexion    of    the    thighs    and    the 


Fig.  209. — Wooden  statue  of  a 
woman,  Old  Kingdom. 


STATUARY    OF    TIIK    OLD    EMPIRE. 


251 


effort  with  which  he  presses  on  the  kneading- 
trough  are  perfectly  natural.  The  dwarf  has  a  long, 
big  head  and  huge 
cars  (fig.  212).  The 
face  is  foolish,  the 
eyes  are  narrow  slits 
sloping  upw^ards  to 
the  temples,  and  the 
mouth  is  misshaped. 
The  chest  is  powerful 
and  well  developed, 
but  the  trunk  not  in 
proportion  with  the 
rest  of  the  body, 
and  the  sculptor  has 
been  well  advised  in 
concealing  the  lower 
part  under  an  ample 
white  skirt,  for  one 
feels  it  is  too  long 
for  the  arms  and 
legs.  The  abdomen 
is  abnormally  pro- 
minent, while  the 
hips  are  set  so  far 
back  that  they  act 
as  a  counterpoise. 
The  thighs  are  little 
more  than  rudi- 
mentary, and  the  entire  figure,  resting  on  small, 
misshapen  feet,  seems  as  though  it  must  overbalance 
and    fall    forward.       It    would    be   difficult    anywhere 


Fig.  210. — The  kneeling  scribe, 
Old  Kingdom. 


25: 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


to  find  a  work  of  art  where  such  deformities  are 
represented  in  so  lifelike  a  manner,  free  from  ex- 
aggeration. 

Theban  art  is  closely  related  to  that  of  Memphis. 
Its  methods,  materials,  composition,  and  designs  are 
those  of  the  Memphite  school,  but  there  are  also 
points    of    divergence.      By    the    beginning    of    the 


Fig,  211. — A  bread-maker,  Old  Empire. 

Eleventh  Dynasty  the  legs  became  longer  and 
slighter,  the  hips  less  powerful,  the  body  and  neck 
more  slender.  Works  of  this  period  of  the  Middle 
Kingdom  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  best 
productions  of  the  earlier  centuries.  The  wall- 
paintings  of  Siut,  of  Bersheh,  of  Beni  Hasan,  and 
of  Assuan  are  not  equal  to  those  of  Saqqara  and 
Gizeh  ;  nor  are  the  most  carefully  executed  statues 


SCULPTURE   OF   FIRST   THEBAN    EMPIRE.       253 

of  that  time  worthy  to  rank  with  the  S/ieikh  el  Beled 
or  the  cross-legged  scribe.  Nevertheless,  the  seated 
statue  of  Mentuhotcp  I.  discovered  at  Deir  cl  Bahari 


Fig.  21 1. — The  dwarf  Nemhotep,  Old  Kingdom. 

in  1900  is  a  very  vigorous  and  effective  piece  of  work. 
Man}'  of  the  royal  statues  of  this  period  that  we 
possess  have  been  usurped  by  later  sovereigns. 
Senusert  III.,  whose  head  and  feet  are  in  the  Louvre, 
was  appropriated  by  Amenhotep  III.,  and  the  sphinx 


254  PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 

at  the  Louvre  and  the  colossi  at  Cairo  by  Rameses  II. 
More  than  one  museum  possesses  statues  supposed 
to  be  of  Rameses  II.  which  on  careful  examination 
we  are  compelled  to  ascribe  to  the  Pharaohs  of  the 
Thirteenth  or  Fourteenth  Dynast}'.  Those  statues 
of  which  there  is  no  doubt,  Sebekhotep  III.  of  the 
Louvre,  the  Sebekemsaf  of  Cairo,  and  the  colossi 
of  the  island  of  Argo,  show  dexterity  of  manipula- 
tion, but  are  wanting  in  vigour  and  originality,  as 
though  the  sculptors  had  attempted  to  reduce  them 
all  to  the  same  feeble  and  expressionless  t}^pe. 

The  contrast  is  great  when  we  turn  from  these 
poor  puppets  of  the  early  Theban  school  to  work 
of  the  Tanite  school  of  the  same  period,  the  black 
granite  sphinxes  discovered  by  Mariette  at  Tanis 
in  1 86 1.  The  body  of  the  lion  is  powerful  and 
compact,  and  is  shorter  than  in  sphinxes  of  the 
usual  type.  Instead  of  a  head-dress  of  folded  linen 
the  head  is  covered  with  an  ample  mane  that  frames 
the  face  and  encloses  the  lion's  ears.  Smxall  eyes, 
an  aquiline  nose  rounded  at  the  base,  high  cheek- 
bones, the  lower  lip  slightly  protruding,  a  countenance 
so  little  in  accord  with  what  we  are  accustomed  to 
find  in  Egypt  that  they  were  at  one  time  supposed 
to  be  of  Asiatic  origin  (fig.  213).  M.  Golenischeff, 
however,  has  shown  that  they  were  executed  for 
Amenemhat  III.  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  and  with 
his  features.  Whatever  the  origin  of  the  Tanite 
school  that  produced  these  specimens,  it  continued 
to  exist  long  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos 
invaders,  since  one  of  its  works,  the  group  of  the 
two  Niles  of   the  North    and    of  the  South,  bearing 


SCULrTURE   OF   THE    NEW    EMPIRE. 


25 


trays    laden   with    flowers  and  fish,  was   consecrated 
by  Pisebkhanu  of  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty. 

The  first  three  dynasties  of  the  New  Kingdom  have 
bequeathed  us  more  monuments  than  all  the  others 
put  together  ;  bas-reliefs,  paintings,  statues  of  kings 
and  of  private  persons,  colossi,  and  sphinxes  can 
be  counted  by  hundreds  between  the  Fourth  Cataract 


Fig.  213.— One  of  the  Tanis  sphinxes, 

and  the  mouths  of  the  Nile.  The  old  sacerdotal 
cities,  Memphis,  Thebes,  Abydos,  are  naturally  the 
richest,  and  the  ancient  schools  of  Memphis  and 
Tanis  still  preserved  their  traditions,  but  so  great 
w^as  the  impetus  given  to  art  that  even  remote  pro- 
vincial towns  could  boast  of  producing  chefs- cTceuvre. 
But  it  is  to  the  Theban  school,  the  royal  city  and 
workshops   of  Thebes,  and   the    funerary   workshops 


256  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

of  the  western  valley  that  most  of  the  work  of  this 
period  is  due.  The  royal  workshops  at  Karnak  pro- 
duced the  official  portraits  of  the  Pharaohs.  Amen- 
hotep  I.  is  at  Turin,  Thothmes  I.  and  Thothmes  III. 
are  at  the  British  Museum  and  at  Turin,  as  well 
as  at  Cairo.  The  favissa  at  Karnak  discovered  by 
M.  Legrain  in  1903  contributed  about  eight  hundred 
statues  of  the  Theban  school,  of  Pharaohs,  and  of 
eminent  personages.  The  bas-reliefs  in  temples  and 
tombs  show  a  marked  advance  upon  those  of  the  earlier 
ages.  The  modelling  is  finer,  the  figures  are  more 
numerous  and  better  grouped,  the  relief  is  higher, 
and  the  perspective  is  studied  with  more  care  and 
insight.  The  sculptured  scenes  of  the  terraces  of 
Deir  el  Bahari  and  in  the  rock-tombs  of  Hui,  of 
Rekhmara,  of  Anna,  of  Khamha,  and  of  many 
others  at  Thebes  are  surprisingly  rich,  brilliant, 
and  varied.  Feeling  for  the  picturesque  is  aroused, 
and  architectural  details,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
ground,  exotic  plants,  all  factors  hitherto  neglected 
or  only  summarily  indicated,  are  now  introduced 
into  the  composition. 

The  cow  found  at  Deir  el  Bahari  by  M.  Naville  is 
a  fine  piece  of  work  ;  it  reproduces  all  the  character- 
istics of  the  kindly  animal  with  marvellous  fidelity, 
and  also  succeeds  in  imparting  to  the  sacred  symbol 
of  the  goddess  Hathor  a  feeling  of  remoteness  and 
mystery  which  is  the  result  of  real  genius.  Hathor 
is  standing  among  the  marsh  plants,  on  her  head 
is  the  solar  disc,  and  under  her  protection  are  figures 
of  Amenhotep  II.  in  two  positions,  suckled  by  the 
sacred  mother,  and  also  leaning  against  her  chest. 


ART   OF   TELL    EL   A^L\RNA.  25/ 

The  taste  for  the  colossal,  somewhat  modified  since 
the  construction  of  the  great  sphinx,  now  revived. 
Amenhotep  III.  was  not  satisfied  with  statues  20  or 
30  feet  in  height,  such  as  had  contented  his  ancestors. 
Those  erected  by  hi  in  in  front  of  his  funerary  chapel 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  at  Thebes,  one  of  which  is 
the  Memnon  of  the  Greeks,  are  50  feet  high.  They  are 
monoliths  carved  in  sandstone,  and  are  as  carefully 
worked  as  though  they  were  of  ordinary  size.  The 
avenues  of  sphinxes  that  stretch  in  front  of  the  temples 
at  Luxor  and  Karnak  do  not  end  some  few  feet  from 
the  entrance,  they  extend  a  long  distance  ;  in  one  avenue 
they  are  human-headed  lions,  in  another  they  are 
kneeling  rams.  Akhenaten,thc  revolutionary  successor 
of  Amenhotep  III.,  far  from  discouraging  the  progress 
of  art,  did  his  utmost  to  promote  it.  Never,  perhaps, 
were  Egyptian  artists  more  unrestricted  than  by  him 
at  his  new  capital  of  Tell  el  Amarna.  While  throwing 
off  the  trammels  of  the  ancient  religion,  art  was  able 
to  expand,  enriched  b}'  the  foreign  influences  that  for 
more  than  a  generation  had  penetrated  the  court  and 
country.  It  is  probable  that  Akhenaten  introduced 
artists  from  the  neighbourhood.  The  school  of  Cusse 
was  mature  as  early  as  the  Twelfth  Dynasty.  In  the 
tomb  chapels  of  Meir,  15  miles  south  of  Tell  el 
Amarna,  are  to  be  seen  not  only  the  naturalistic 
treatment  of  animal  forms,  but  also  of  the  human 
figure,  and  many  of  the  peculiarities  which  we  find 
reproduced  under  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  by  the 
artists  of  Akhenaten   and  his  court.* 

*  A.  M.  Blackman,  Archceological  Survey^  Egvpt  Exploration  Fund, 
1911-12,  p.  9  et  seq. 

17 


558  PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 

Among  the  subjects  treated  on  the  bas-reliefs  of 
Tell  el  Amarna  are  military  reviews,  chariot  driving, 
festivals  of  the  fellahin,  state  receptions,  the  distribu- 
tion of  honours  and  rewards  by  the  king,  representa- 
tions of  palaces,  villas,  and  gardens,  and  other  subjects 
which  differed  from  the  traditional  mode  of  treatment 
in  so  many  points  that  the  artists  could  follow  their 
own  ideas  and  natural  genius  without  restraint.  They 
did  so  with  admirable  results.  The  perspective  of 
some  of  their  bas-reliefs  is  almost  entirely  correct, 
and  all  of  them  express  the  movements  of  large 
numbers  of  people  with  astonishing  success. 

Admirable  statues  of  the  king  and  of  members  of 
his  family  have  been  found,  many  of  them  shattered, 
and  others  left  unfinished  in  the  sculptors'  workshops. 
A  very  charming  statuette  of  Akhenaten  in  painted 
limestone  (fig.  214)  was  discovered  at  Tell  el  Amarna 
in  1 91 2  by  Borchhardt,  and  is  now  at  Cairo.  The 
monotheistic  king  is  holding  a  table  of  offerings. 
The  delicate  features  are  those  we  are  well  acquainted 
with  in  other  portraits  of  him  both  in  the  round  and 
in  bas-relief;  the  sensitive  expression  of  the  face  is 
admirably  rendered.  The  conventions  are  the  same 
as  in  other  royal  statues  ;  the  pediment  is  there,  and 
the  full-face  pose  is  unaltered. 

The  political  and  religious  reaction  that  followed 
this  reign  arrested  this  development  of  art,  and  the 
Theban  school  was  once  more  triumphant.  The 
school  of  Tell  el  Amarna  continued,  however,  at 
least  as  late  as  the  Twenty-second  Dynasty,  and 
although  it  returned  to  the  ancient  religious  con- 
ventions,   the   style    of  the   school    persisted    to    the 


Fig-.  214. — Statuette  in  painted  limestone  of  Akhenatcn. 
Deutscli  -  Orient.  Gt'sellschoft. 


26o 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


end.*  Its  influence,  moreover,  made  itself  felt  under 
Horemheb,  under  Seti  I.,  and  even  under  Rameses  II. 
If  during  more  than  a  century  Theban  art  remained 
free,  graceful,  and  refined,  that  improvement  was  due 
to  the  school  of  Tell  el  Amarna.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  find  anything  finer  than  the  bas-reliefs 
of  the  temple  of  Abydos,  or   those  of  the  tomb  of 

Seti  I.  The  head  of 
the  Pharaoh  (fig.  215), 
which  must  neces- 
sarily be  always  very 
favourably  presented, 
is  a  model  of  re- 
served and  dignified 
beauty.  Rameses  II., 
represented  as  a  war- 
rior in  the  speos  of 
Abu  Simbel,  is  almost 
as  admirable  as  Seti  I., 
though  very  differ- 
ently rendered.  The 
action  of  the  arm  with 
which  he  brandishes 
his  lance  is  somewhat 
angular,  but  the  expression  of  courage  and  triumphant 
vigour  that  pervades  the  whole  body,  and  the  de- 
spairing and  yet  resigned  attitude  of  the  vanquished 
foe,  completely  atone  for  that  defect.  The  group  of 
Horemheb  and  the  god  Amon  in  the  Turin  Museum 
(fig.  216)  is  slightly  heavy  and  ill-balanced.  The 
fine  colossi  in   red   granite  which  Horemheb   placed 

*  L.  Rorchhardt,  Mill.  Orient.  Geselhchaft,  No.  50,  Oct.  1912. 


Fig.  215. — Head  of  Seti  I 


SCULPTURE   OF   THE    NEW    KINCiDO.M. 


261 


against  the  uprights  of  the  inner  door  of  his  first 
pylon  at  Karnak,  the  statue  of  Khonsu  which  he 
placed  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  god,  and  the  bas- 
reliefs  on  the  wall 
of  his  speos  at  Gebel 
Silsileh,  his  own 
portrait  and  that  of 
one  of  the  ladies  of 
his  family  now  at 
Cairo,  may  be  said 
to  be  faultless.  The 
queen's  face  (fig.  2 1 7) 
is  animated  and  in- 
telligent ;  the  eyes 
are  large  and  some- 
what prominent,  and 
the  mouth,  though 
rather  large,  is  wxll 
shaped.  The  head 
is  carved  in  hard 
limestone,  the 
creamy  tint  of  which 
softens  the  satirical 
expression  of  her 
glance  and  smile. 
Horemheb  is  in 
black  granite  (fig. 
218),  and  the  sombre  colour  is  unpleasing  and  depress- 
ing to  the  spectator.  The  face,  which  is  a  young  one, 
is  pervaded  by  a  morbid  air,  which  we  find  in  other 
royal  statues  of  the  period.  The  nose  is  straight  and 
delicate,  the  eyes  are  long,  the  lips  are  large  and  full. 


Fig.  216. — The  god  Amon  and 
Horemheb. 


262 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


slightly  contracted  at  the  corners,  and  strongly  de- 
fined at  the  edges,  the  chin  is  barely  covered  by  the 
false  beard.  Every  detail  is  treated  with  as  much 
skill-  as  if  the  artist  had  to  deal  with  a  soft  stone 
instead  of  with  one  that  offers  such  resistance  to  the 
chisel.  It  is  annoying  that  Egyptian  artists  never 
signed  their  work.  The  man  to  whom  we  owe  the 
statue    of    Horemheb    deserves    to    be    remembered. 

Like  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty,  the  Nineteenth 
Dynasty  erected  colossi. 
Those  of  Rameses  II.  at 
Luxor  measured  from  25 
to  35  feet  in  height,  the 
colossal  Rameses  of  the 
Ramesseum  was  57  feet 
high,  and  that  at  Tanis 
about  65  feet.  The  colossi 
of  Abu  Simbel,  although 
not   of  such   gigantic  size, 


present  a  formidable  ap- 
pearance on  the  river 
front. 

At  the  present  day  it  is  almost  a  commonplace  to 
say  that  the  decadence  of  Egyptian  art  commenced 
under  Rameses  II.,  but  nothing  can  be  more  untrue. 
It  must  be  conceded  that  many  of  the  statues  and 
bas-reliefs  executed  during  his  reign  are  almost  incon- 
ceivably rude  and  ugly,  but  they  are  chiefly  to  be 
found  in  provincial  towns,  where  schools  did  not 
flourish  and  the  artists  had  no  ancient  models  to 
guide  them.     At  Thebes,  Memphis,  Abydos,   Tanis, 


Fig.  217. — Head  of  a  queen, 
Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


DECADENCE   OF   ART. 


263 


in  localities  in  the  Delta  where  the  court  habitually 
resided,  and  even  at  Abii  Simbel  and  Bet  el  Wally 
the  sculptors  of 
Rameses  II.  were  in 
no  way  inferior  to 
those  of  Seti  I.  and 
Horemheb.  Decad- 
ence began  after  the 
reign  of  Merenptah. 
When  civil  war  and 
foreign  invasion  had 
brought  Egypt  to  the 
verge  of  ruin,  art  also 
suffered  and  rapidly 
declined.  It  is 
melancholy  to  watch 
the  downward  pro- 
gress under  the  later 
Ramessides,  in  the 
well  scenes  of  the 
royal  tombs,  in  the 
reliefs  in  the  temple 
of  Khonsii,  or  on  the  /? 
columns  01  the  hypo-  A 
style  hall  of  Karnak. 
Carving  in  wood 
maintained  its  level 
for  some  time  longer. 
The  charming  figur- 
ines   of    priests    and 

of  children    in    the    Turin    Museum    date   from    the 
Twentieth  Dynasty.     The  advent  of  Sheshonk  and 


Fig.  218. — Head  of  Horemheb 


264 


PAINTING    xVND   SCULrTURE. 


internal  dissensions  at  length  completed  the  ruin  of 
Thebes,  and  of  the  school  which  had  produced  so 
many  masterpieces.  That  the  school  of  Tanis  still 
persisted  as  late  as  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty  is 
proved  by  the  fine  group  of  the  two  Niles  now  at 
Cairo,  and  the  school  of  Tell  el  Amarna  survived 
still  longer.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
Ethiopian  Dynasty,  Theban  art  revived 
after  an  interval  of  three  hundred 
years.  The  statue  of  Queen  Ameniritis 
(fig.  219)  m.anifests  some  noteworthy 
qualities.  The  limbs  are  slender  and 
rounded,  the  lines  are  delicate  and 
pure,  but  the  head,  over-weighted  with 
the  head-dress  usually  worn  by  god- 
desses, is  dull  and  lifeless.  Psamme- 
tichus  I.,  when  victoriously  seated  on 
the  throne,  devoted  himself  to  the 
restoration  of  the  temples.  Under  his 
auspices  the  valley  of  the  Nile  became 
one  vast  studio  of  painting  and 
sculpture,  which  owed  its  inspiration 
Queen  to  the  artists  of  the  Delta.  The 
carving  of  hieroglyphs  attained  re- 
markable precision,  and  fine  statues  and  bas-reliefs 
were  produced  in  large  numbers.  The  Saite  school 
is  characterised  by  a  somewhat  stiff  elegance,  by 
attention  to  detail,  and  by  an  incomparable  facility  in 
the  working  of  stone.  The  Memphites  preferred 
limestone,  the  Thebans  chose  red  or  grey  granite,  but 
the  Saites  by  preference  worked  in  basalt,  breccia,  or 
serpentine,  and  with   these  fine    grained  and   almost 


Fig.  219 

Ameniritis. 


SAITE    SCULPTURE. 


26$ 


homogeneous  materials  they  obtained  surprising 
results.  They  courted  difficulty  for  the  pleasure  of 
overcoming  it,  and  one  finds  distinguished  artists 
spending  year  after  year  in  chiselling  the  cover  of  a 
sarcophagus  or  carving  statues  out  of  the  most  stub- 
born materials.  The  statue  of  Taurt  (fig.  220),  and 
the  four  pieces  of  the  tomb  of  the  scribe  Psammetichus 
of  the  Thirtieth  Dynasty  in 
the  Cairo  Museum  are  the 
most  remarkable  pieces 
hitherto  discovered  of  this 
class  of  work.  Taurt,  the 
Greek  Thueris,  was  the 
goddess  who  protected  preg- 
nant women  and  presided 
over  childbirth.  This  figure 
of  the  goddess  was  dis- 
covered at  Thebes  by  fellahin 
digging  (or  sedak/i, the  nitrous 
manure  that  is  found  round 
the  ruins  of  ancient  build- 
ings. She  was  standing  in 
a  chapel  of  white  limestone 
dedicated  to  her  by  the 
priest  Pabesa  in  the  name 
of  Queen  Nitocris.  This 
charming  hippopotamus  carved  in  green  serpentine, 
with  her  disproportionate  snout,  her  ample  smile, 
rounded  belly,  pendant  breasts,  and  shortened  paws,  is 
a  fine  example  of  difficulties  overcome,  the  only  merit 
I  have  any  wish  to  ascribe  to  her.  The  Psammetichus 
group  on  the  contrary  has  real  artistic  merit  as  well 


Fig.  220. — The  goddess  Taurt, 
Saite  work. 


266 


PAINTING    AND   SCULPTURE. 


as  excellence  of  technique.  It  consists  of  four  pieces 
of  green  basalt,  a  table  of  offerings,  a  statue  of  Osiris, 
a  statue  of  Isis,  and  a  Hathor  cow  against  which 
Psammetichus  is  leaning  (fig.  22 1 ).  All  four  are  some- 
what artificial,  but  the  faces  of  the  divinities  and  of 
the  deceased  man  are  not  wanting  in  sweetness.  The 
cow  is  admirable.     She   is  stretching  her  head  over 

the  man  to  protect 
him  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  cow 
of  Deir  el  Bahari, 
and  the  little  figure 
she  is  supporting 
groups  well  with  her. 
Other  less  known 
pieces  compare  well 
with  these.  The  Saite 
style  is  easily  recog- 
nised. It  does  not 
show  the  broad 
scholarly  treatment 
of  the  first  Mem  phi  te 
school,  nor  the  grand 
and  sometimes  rude  manner  of  the  second  Thcban 
school,  the  proportions  of  the  body  are  more  slender, 
and  the  limbs  lose  in  vigour  what  they  gain  in 
elegance.  A  remarkable  change  in  the  attitude  is 
also  observable.  Orientals  assume  attitudes  which 
to  us  would  be  most  fatiguing.  They  spend  long 
hours  kneeling  or  seated  cross-legged  in  tailor  fashion, 
or  they  squat  like  frogs  with  bent  knees,  only 
supported   by  the   toes   and   ball  of  the  foot  on  the 


Fig.  221. — Hathor-cow  in  green   basalt, 
Saite  work. 


ATTITUDE    IN    SCULPTURE. 


267 


ground,  or  a^j^ain  they  sit  on  the  ground  with   their 
legs    drawn    up    and    arms   crossed    on    their    knees. 
The  bas-reHefs  show  that  these  four  attitudes  were  in 
use  as  early  as  the  Old  Kingdom,  but  the  two  last 
were  not  adopted  for  the  early  statuar}'.     The  early 
artists  probably  considered 
them     ungraceful,    and 
scarcely   ever    used    them. 
The   cross-legged  scribe    of 
the  Louvre,  and  the  kneel- 
ing  scribe  of   Cairo,   show 
how    they    availed    them- 
selves   of    the    two     first. 
The     third     attitude     was 
neglected  by    the   Theban 
sculptors,  no  doubt  for  the 
same    reason.     About   the 
time     of    the     Eighteenth 
Dynasty  we  find  the  fourth 
attitude     coming 
into   general   use. 
It  is  possible  that 
earlier     it     w^as 
not      fashionable 
among  the  weal- 
thier classes,  who 
alone  were  able  to  order  statuary,  and  also  it  is  prob- 
able that  customers  would  not  choose  to  appear  in  the 
form  of  a  square  package  surmounted  by  a  human 
head.     The  sculptors  of  the  Saite  period  had  not  the 
same  objection  as  their  predecessors  to  this  position, 
and  they  contrived  to  arrange  the  limbs  with   some 


Fig.  222.— Squatting  statue  of  Pedishashi, 
Sa'ite  work. 


268 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


grace,  while  they  rendered  the  heads  in  a  fashion  that 
redeemed  any  defect  of  posture.  That  of  Pedishashi 
(fig.  222)  has  an  expression  of  youthfulness  and  in- 
telh'gent  kindHness  such  as  we  rarely  meet  with  from 
an  Egyptian  chisel.  Others  again  are  brutal  in  their 
sincerity.  The  wrinkles  on  the  forehead,  the  crows- 
feet  at  the  corners  of  the  eyes,  the  folds  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  prominences  on   the  head  are  marked  with 

scrupulous  fidelity  on  a 
small  head  of  a  scribe  at 
the  Louvre  (fig.  223),  and 
in  another  belonging  to 
Prince  Ibrahim  at  Cairo. 
The  Saite  school  divided 
into  two  parties.  One 
attempted  to  model  itself 
on  the  remote  past,  and 
endeavoured  to  revive  the 
enfeebled  art  of  their  own 
times  by  adopting  the 
methods  of  the  ancient 
Memphite  school.  They 
succeeded  so  well  that  their  work  has  been  mistaken 
for  some  of  the  finest  productions  of  the  Fourth  and 
Fifth  Dynasties.  The  other  fashion,  without  departing 
too  obviously  from  tradition,  elected  to  study  from 
life,  and  approached  more  closely  to  nature  than  had 
ever  been  done  previously.  They  might  probably 
have  carried  the  day,  had  not  prolonged  contact  with 
the  Greeks  and  the  Macedonian  conquest  turned  the 
art  of  Egypt  into  new  channels. 

The     new     departure     progressed     slowly.       The 


Fig.  223.— Head  of  a  scribe, 
Saite  work. 


SAITE   SCULPTURE. 


269 


successors  of  Alexander  were 
sculptors  in  the  guise  of  Egyp- 
tians, and  they  were  transformed 
into  Pharaohs,  as  had  happened 
in  turns  to  the  Hyksos  and  the 
Persians.  The  sculptures  that 
can  be  assigned  to  the  time  of 
the  early  Ptolemies  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  good  Saite  period,  and  it  is 
only  rarely  that  one  can  detect 
imitation  of  Hellenic  models  : 
thus  the  colossus  of  Alexander  II. 
at  Cairo  (fig.  224)  has  some 
flowing  material  as  a  head-dress, 
below  which  is  a  row  of  curls. 
Soon,  however,  the  sight  of 
Greek  masterpieces  determined 
the  Egyptians  of  Alexandria, 
Memphis,  and  the  great  cities 
of  the  Delta  to  modify  their 
methods  of  procedure.  A  mixed 
school  was  established  that  com- 
bined certain  elements  of  the 
indigenous  art  with  others  bor- 
rowed from  the  foreign  art.  The 
Alexandrian  Isis  of  the  Cairo 
Museum  still  wears  the  attire  of 
the  Pharaonic  Isis,  but  she  has 
lost  the  slender  form  and  stilted, 
unnatural   bearing.     There  is  a 


portrayed     by    the 


riL5'*^r 


^ 


A 


Fig.  224. — C'ulossus  of 
Alexander  II. 


mutilated  figure  of  a  prince  of  Siut  that  might  perhaps 


270 


PAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


pass   for   a   poor    Roman   statue.      The   statue   of  a 
personage   named   Horus  discovered   in   1881   not  far 

from  the  site  of  the  tomb 
of  Alexander  is  the  most 
powerful  example  that  we 
possess  of  this  hybrid 
school  (fig.  225).  The 
head  is  a  good  piece  of 
work,  though  perhaps 
somewhat  dry  in  style. 
The  thin  straight  nose,  the 
eyes  placed  close  together, 
the  straight  mouth  pinched 
in  at  the  corners,  and  the 
square  chin  all  conduce 
to  give  an  expression  of 
harshness  and  obstinacy  to 
the  face.  The  hair  is  short, 
but  not  so  cropped  as  to 
prevent  its  separating 
naturally  into  thick  wavy 
locks.  The  body  clothed 
in  the  chlamys  is  clumsy 
and  not  in  accord  with  the 
head.  One  arm  is  hanging 
down,  the  other  is  bent 
and  resting  on  the  body, 
the  feet  are  gone.  All  this 
statuary  is  the  result  of 
recent  finds,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  systematic 
excavations  at  Alexandria  would.;  produce  much 
more.      The    school    that   produced   them    gradually 


'^UCJ^''fu^2^ 


Fig.  225. — Statue  of  Horns. 
Graeco-Egj'ptian. 


gr/ECo-egyptian  art.  271 

approached  more  and  more  nearly  to  the  style  of 
the  Greek  schools,  and  the  stiffness,  from  which 
it  never  entirely  freed  itself,  would  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  a  defect  at  a  time  when  certain 
sculptors  employed  in  Rome  prided  themselves  on 
their  archaisms.  I  should  not  be  surprised  if  the 
statues  of  priests  and  priestesses  with  which  Hadrian 
decorated  the  Egyptian  part  of  his  villa  on  the  Tiber 
might  be  attributed  to  this  Alexandrian  hybrid 
school. 

The  native  schools  outside  the  Delta,  left  to  their 
own  resources,  gradually  perished.  And  yet  they 
were  not  without  models,  or  even  Greek  artists.  In 
the  Thebaid,  in  the  Fayum,  and  at  Assuan,  I  have 
bought  or  discovered  statues  and  statuettes  which  are 
Hellenic  in  style  and  of  correct  and  careful 
workmanship.  One  of  them,  bought  at  Koptos, 
appears  to  be  a  small  replica  of  a  Venus  analogous  to 
the  Venus  of  Milo.  But  the  provincial  artists,  from 
lack  of  knowledge  and  intelligence,  failed  to  take 
advantage  of  the  new  ideas  as  the  Alexandrians  had 
done.  When  they  endeavoured  to  give  to  their 
models  the  suppleness  and  plenitude  of  the  Greek 
figures  they  only  succeeded  in  losing  the  somewhat 
dry  but  masterly  precision  acquired  by  their  predeces- 
sors. In  place  of  the  fine,  delicate  low  relief,  they 
adopted  a  relief  deeply  cut,  but  feebly  rounded  and 
modelled  and  wanting  in  vigour.  The  eyes  smile 
foolishly,  the  slope  of  the  nostril  is  exaggerated,  the 
corners  of  the  lips,  the  chin,  and  all  parts  of  the 
face  are  contracted  and  seem  to  converge  towards  a 
central  point  placed  in  the  ear.     W'c  have  the  work 


TAINTING   AND   SCULPTURE. 


of  two  schools  each  independent  of  the  other.     The 
least   known   flourished   in    Ethiopia    at   the   court  of 
the  semi-barbarous  kings  who  reigned  at  Meroe.     A 
group    sent    from    Naga   in    1882   show\s  us   to   what 
this  art  had  attained  in  the  first  century  of  our  era 
(fig.   226).      A    divinity    and    a 
queen  standing  side  by  side  are 
roughly  carved   out   of  a   block 
of  grey   granite.      The   work   is 
coarse  and  heavy,  but  it  is  not 
without  energy  and  truth.     The 
school  that  produced  it,  isolated 
among    an    uncivilised    people, 
soon    fell    into    barbarism    and 
probably  came  to  an  end  shortly 
after  the  age  of  the  Antonines. 
Egyptian  art  survived  somewhat 
longer   under    the    a^gis    of  the 
Roman  domination.  The  Caesars, 
no  less  astute  than  the  Ptolemies, 
realised  that  they  strengthened 
their    dominion    over    the    Nile 
valley  by    humouring    the    reli- 
gious feelings  of  their  Egyptian 
subjects.       At    enormous     cost 
they   caused    the    temples    of  the    national    gods    to 
be    rebuilt    or    restored  according   to   the   plans   and 
ideas  of   the   past.     Thebes   had    been   destroyed  by 
a   earthquake    in    the   year  22   B.C.  and   it    was    now 
no  more  than  a  place  of  pilgrimage  where  devotees 
came  at  daybreak  to  listen  to  the  voice  of  Memnon, 
but  at  Denderah  and  Ombos  the  decoration   of  the 


Fig.  226. — Group  from 
Naga. 


DF.CLINE    AND    EXTINCTION.  273 

temples  was  completed  by  Tiberius  and  Claudius, 
Caligula  worked  at  Koptos,  and  the  Antonines  at 
Philae  and  Esnah.  The  workmen  employed  had 
sufficient  knowledge  to  execute  thousands  of  bas- 
reliefs  according  to  the  ancient  rules.  The  work 
done  by  them  is  feeble,  ungraceful,  and  absurd, 
inspired  merely  by  routine,  but  nevertheless  it  is 
founded  on  ancient  tradition,  enfeebled  and  de- 
generate, but  still  living  and  capable  of  being 
invigorated  with  new  life.  The  changes  that  occurred 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  the  incursions 
of  the  barbarians,  and  the  progress  and  triumph  of 
Christianity  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  work  and 
the  dispersion  of  the  workmen.  With  them  died  all 
that  yet  survived  of  the  national  art. 


18 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS. 

We    have    briefly   surveyed    the    fine    arts ;    it    now 
remains  to  turn   our  attention  to  the  industrial  arts. 


Fig. 


227.— Slate  palettes,  predynastic  and  First  D^'nastj', 
Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford. 


Love  of  luxury  and  of  beauty  very  early  invaded  all 
classes  of  society.  Living  or  dead,  the  Egyptian  liked 
to  load  himself  with  jewellery  and  costly  amulets,  and 
to    surround    himself   with    elaborate    furniture    and 

274 


SLATE    PALETTES. 


275 


artistic  household  utensils. 
He  desired  that  every 
object  used  by  him  should 
contribute  to  satisfy  this 
taste  by  beauty  of  form,  if 
not  by  richness  of  material ; 
and  pottery,  stone,  metal, 
and  wood  were  all  laid 
under  contribution  by  him. 
whether  they  were  the 
products  of  the  country, 
or  obtained  from  distant 
lands. 

The  Egyptian  of  the 
predynastic  and  earliest 
dynastic  periods  was  laid 
in  his  grave  surrounded  by 
pottery  jars  filled  with  food, 
or  with  scented  fat,  while 
close  to  his  hand  was  his 
slate  palette  (fig.  227)  of 
many  varied  forms  on 
which  was  rubbed  the  paint 
with  which  he  coloured 
his  eyes.  Beads  of  agate, 
carnelian,  brown  and  white 
quartz,  steatite,  calaite,  and 
of  glazed  pottery,  are  found 
in  abundance  in  the  pre- 
historic graves,  while 
beads  of  glazed  stone,  of 
turquoise, 


276 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


amethyst,  lapis  lazuli,  serpentine,  haematite,  obsidian, 
porphyry,  silver,  gold,  and  iron  are  found  in  some- 
what later  graves.  The  Egyptian  of  that  period 
excelled  in  flint  working,  which  he  brought  to  the 
highest  perfection  (fig.  228;.  Knives  with  recurved 
tips  were  finished  with  unequalled  dexterity.  They 
were  first  ground  to  an  even  surface,  and  then 
flaked  in  two  rows  of  perfect  regularity,  and  the 
cutting  edge  finely  serrated.     Hoe  blades  and  teeth 


Fig.  229.— Flint  teeth  for  sickles. 


for  sickles  ffig.  229)  were  also  made  of  flint,  and 
tanged  arrow-heads  and  spear-heads  of  the  finest 
workmanship  were  manufactured.  Copper  was  early 
introduced  into  Egypt  and  largely  superseded  the  use 
of  flint  knives,  the  working  of  which  deteriorated  early 
in  the  dynastic  period.  The  funerary  outfit  of  the 
predynastic  Egyptian  included  jewellery,  ivory  carv- 
ings, stone  vases,  and  also  a  variety  of  amulets, 
some  of  which  we  meet  with  again  in  the  historic 
period,  such  as  the  bull's  head,  the  fly,  the  frog,  and 
the  serpent. 


BEADS    AND   AMULETS.  277 

I. STONE,    POTTERY,    AND    (JLASS. 

It  is   impossible,  to  visit  a  collection  of  Egyptian 
antiquities    without  being  struck   by   the    prodigious 
number    of  small    objects    in    fine    stone    that    have 
survived   to  the   present   day.     At    present  we   have 
found    no  diamonds,   rubies,   or    sapphires,   but    with 
these    exceptions    the   domain    of   the    lapidary   was 
almost    as    extended    as    at    the    present    day  ;     it 
comprised    amethyst,    emerald,    garnet,    aquamarine, 
rock-crystal,  chrysoprase,  the  many  varieties  of  onyx 
and  agate,  jasper,  lapis  lazuli,  felspar,  obsidian,  granite, 
serpentine,    and    porphyry ;    fossiliferous     substances 
such  as  amber  and  some  kinds  of  turquoise  ;  animal 
secretions  such  as  coral,  pearls,  and  mother-of-pearl  ; 
metallic  oxides  such  as  haematite,  oriental  turquoise, 
and  malachite.     Most  of  these  substances  were  used 
for   making  beads   of  various  shapes,  round,  square, 
oval,  pear-shaped,  lozenge-shaped,  or  of  an  elongated 
spindle  form.     Threaded  and  arranged  in  rows  these 
beads  were  made  into  necklaces  and  they  are  found 
in  myriads  in  the  sand  of  the  great  cemeteries.     The 
perfection  with  which  they  are  cut  and  polished,  and 
the  precision  with  which  they  are  drilled,  do  honour 
to  those  who  made  them.     But  the  craftsmen  accom- 
plished  more  than   this.     With  the  saw,  drill,  point, 
and  grindstone  they  worked  the  stones  into  a  variety 
of   different    shapes,    hearts,    fingers,    human    limbs, 
cartouches,  serpents,  animals,  and  figures  of  divinities. 
All  of  these  were  amulets  or  charms,  and  they  were 
probably  valued  less  for  the  beauty  of  the  work  than 
for  the  supernatural  virtues  attributed  to  them  by  the 


2/8  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

national  religion.     The  girdle  tie  in  red  carnelian  was 
the  blood  of  Isis   and   washed  away  the   sins  of  its 
possessor  (fig.  230);  the  frog  represented  the 
goddess  Hekt,  guardian  of  mothers  and  new- 
born infants,  and  was  ennblematic  of  renewed 
birth  (fig.  231);  the  little  lotus-flower  column 
in   green  felspar  (fig.  232)  typified  the  gift 
of  eternal  youth ;  the  uzai,  the  mystic  eye 
The  gir-  (fig-   233),  when   tied  by  a  cord  round   the 
die  tie  ot  throat  or  the  arm,  was  a  protection  against 
ghosts,  snake  bites,  and  against  envious  or 
angry  words.   These  amulets  were  distributed  through- 
out the  ancient  world,  and  many  of  them,  especially 
those  that  represented  the  sacred  beetle, 
were     copied     outside    Egypt     by    the 
Phoenicians  and  Syrians,  and  in  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  Etruria,  and  Sardinia. 

This  insect  was  called  kheper  and  it  Fig.  23i.--Froc 
is  supposed  that  its  name  was  derived  amulet. 
from  the  root  khepra,  "to  become."  By  an  obvious 
play  on  the  words  the  beetle  was  made  the  emblem 
of  terrestrial  existence,  and  the  successive 
developments  of  a  man  during  his  career  in 
the  world  beyond.  The  amulet  in  the  form 
of  a  scarab  (fig.  234)  is  therefore  a  symbol 
of  present  or  future  duration,  and  to  carry 
it  was  to  obtain   security  against  annihila- 

Fig. 232. 

Lotus     tion.       These    scarabs    were    made    in    all 
column      materials  and  of  various  sizes  ;    some  with 

amulet.  ' 

the  head  of  a  sparrow-hawk,  a  ram,  a  man, 
or  a  bull.  Some  are  as  carefully  carved  on  the  under- 
side as  on  the  back,  others  are  plain  below,  and  there 


SCARABS. 


79 


Fig.    233. — Sacred 
eye  or  iizat. 


are  others  that  have  almost  lost  the  form  of  the 
beetle,  and  are  called  scaraboids.  They  are  pierced 
lengthways  with  a  hole  through  which  a  thin  slip  of 
wood  was  passed  or  a  gold  or  silver  wire  by  which 
they  were  suspended.  The  largest  were  regarded  as 
taking  the  place  of  the  heart.  They  w^ere  laid  on  the 
breasts  of  mummies,  with  wings  out- 
stretched ;  a  prayer  engraved  on  the 
flat  side  adjured  the  heart  not  to  bear 
witness  against  its  owner  in  the  day 
of  judgment.  Various  scenes  of 
adoration  were  occasionally  added  to 
the  formula.  On  the  wing  cases  two 
seated  Amons,  on  the  shoulder  the  moon  saluted  by 
two  cynocephali,  and  on  the  flat  side  the  solar  bark 
with  a  group  below  of  the  mummied  Osiris  between 
Isis  and  Nephthys,  who  are  protecting  him  with  out- 
stretched wings.  The  small  scarabs  at  first  used  as 
prophylactics  finally  became  nothing  more  than  orna- 
ments, with  no  religious  value.  They  were  used  as 
seals,  as  pendants  or  earrings,  the  bezel  of  a  ring,  or 
threaded  to  form  a  bracelet.  The 
flat  side  is  usually  carved  with 
various  designs  cut  in  the  material 
without  modelling  of  any  kind  ; 
relief,  properly  so  called,  as  employed 
in  the  cameo,  was  unknown  among  Egyptian  lapi- 
daries before  the  Greek  period.  The  subjects  have 
not  yet  been  classified,  nor  has  a  complete  collection 
been  made.  They  include  simple  combinations  of 
lines,  spirals,  and  interlaced  curves,  without  any 
special   meaning  ;    symbols   to   which  the  proprietor 


Fig.  234. — Scarab. 


2  80  THK    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS. 

attached  some  mysterious  signification  known  only 
to  himself ;  the  names,  parentage,  and  titles  of  some 
individual  ;  royal  cartouches  of  historical  interest ; 
good  wishes,  pious  ejaculations,  and  magical  formulae. 
There  are  many  scarabs  in  crystal  and  obsidian  that 
date  back  as  far  as  the  Sixth  Dynasty  ;  others,  roughly 
cut  and  uninscribed,  in  amethyst,  emerald,  and  even 
in  garnet,  belong  to  the  commencement  of  the  first 
Theban  empire.  From  the  time  of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  they  can  be  counted  by  thousands,  and  the 
fineness  and  finish  of  the  work  vary  according  to  the 
hardness  of  the  stone. 

This  is  the  case  with  all  the  varieties  of  amulets. 
The  hippopotamus  heads,  the  souls  or  Ba  birds,  and 
the  hearts  that  are  picked  up  in  numbers  at  Taud 
to  the  south  of  Thebes,  are  scarcely  more  than  out- 
lined, the  amethyst  and  felspar  of  which  they  are 
made  having  proved  almost  impossible  to  work  with 
the  point.  On  the  contrary,  the  girdle  ties,  squares, 
and  head-rests  that  are  carved  out  of  red  jasper, 
carnelian,  and  haematite  are  finished  down  to  the 
smallest  detail.  Lapis  lazuli  is  soft  and  friable,  liable 
to  break  away  at  the  edges,  and  it  might  be  supposed 
that  it  would  not  lend  itself  to  any  minute  work. 
Nevertheless,  the  Egyptians  chiselled  figures  of  god- 
desses out  of  it — Isis,  Nephth\'s,  Neith,  Sekhet — which 
are  marvellous  examples  of  delicate  carving.  The 
modelling  of  the  body  is  as  boldly  cut  as  if  it  were 
carved  out  of  some  material  of  no  more  than  ordinary 
difficulty,  and  the  features  will  bear  examination  with 
a  magnifying-glass.  Generally,  however,  a  different 
method  was  adopted.     The  figure  was  subjected  to  a 


SCULPTURE   IN    MINIATURE.  28 1 

breadth  of  treatment  that  sacrificed  the  details  to  the 
general  effect.  The  projections  and  hollows  of  the 
face  are  accentuated,  and  the  thickness  of  the  neck, 
the  curve  of  throat  and  shoulder,  the  slenderness  of 
the  waist,  the  hollows  and  roundness  of  the  body,  are 
exaggerated  ;  the  thigh  and  tibia  are  defined  by  a 
line  that  is  almost  sharp,  the  feet  and  hands  are 
slightly  enlarged.  All  this  is  the  result  of  bold  and 
judicious  calculation.  An  exact  mathematical  repro- 
duction of  a  model  is,  when  applied  to  sculpture 
in  miniature,  not  as  happy  as  might  be  supposed. 
The  head  loses  its  character,  the  neck  appears  too 
slight,  the  bust  is  no  more  than  a  cylinder  with 
irregular  bumps  on  it,  the  feet  and  legs  do  not  appear 
sufficiently  solid  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body, 
while  the  principal  lines  are  lost  in  the  complexity  of 
the  secondary  ones. 

By  suppressing  most  of  the  accessory  features  and 
accentuating  the  important  ones,  the  Egyptians 
escaped  the  danger  of  producing  insignificant  or 
meaningless  work  :  the  eye  instinctively  modifies  any 
exaggeration,  and  supplies  what  is  lacking.  Owing 
to  this  skilful  treatment,  a  minute  figure  of  a  divinity, 
barely  ih  inches  high,  has  almost  the  breadth  and 
dignity  of  a  colossus. 

As  early  as  the  close  of  the  predynastic  period 
stone  vases  were  worked  in  the  hardest  materials, 
such  as  breccia,  syenite,  quartz,  crystal,  and  diorite, 
and  great  alabaster  bowls  were  so  finely  worked  as  to 
be  translucent.  Stone  vases  intended  for  suspension 
were  provided  with  handles  carved  out  at  the  sides 
and   pierced  (fig.  235).     Some  of  the  finest  of  these 


282  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

stone  vessels  belong  to  the  later  prehistoric  and  early 
dynastic  times  ;  they  are  found  also  in  porphyry, 
slate,  alabaster,  diorite,  basalt,  and  other  fine  stones 
in  the  temples  of  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Dynasties,  and 
the  use  of  them  in  the  softer  materials  of  alabaster 
and  serpentine  continued  into  the  Middle  Kingdom. 
Revolving  seal  cylinders  of  steatite,  gold,  and  ivory 
have  been  found  at  Thinis,  and  abundant  examples 
of  their  use  occur  on  the  sealings  of  jars  in  the  royal 
tombs  at  Abydos  (fig.  236).     They  closely  resemble 


Fig.  235. — Stone  vases,  predynastic  and  First  Dynasty. 
Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford. 


the  cylinder  seals  of  Babylonia.  By  the  time  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom  they  were  superseded  by  scarabs, 
which  were  employed  almost  universally  as  seals 
during  the  later  dynasties.  Of  stone  were  also  the 
small  funerary  obelisks  which  come  from  the  tombs 
of  Saqqara,  the  bases  of  altars,  the  stelse,  and  the 
tables  of  offerings.  At  the  time  of  the  Pyramids  the 
favourite  material  for  the  tables  of  offering  was 
alabaster  or  limestone,  under  the  Theban  kings, 
granite  or  red  sandstone,  and  from  the  time  of  the 
Twenty-sixth  Dynasty,  basalt  or  limestone  ;  but  this 


TABLES   OF   OFFERING. 


283 


was  not  obligatory,  and  we  find  them  at  all  periods 
in  all  kinds  of  stone. 

Some  of  them  were  merely  flat  or  slightly  hollowed 
discs,  others  were  rectangular,  and  carved  on  the 
upper  face  with  loaves,  vases,  haunches  of  oxen  and 
gazelle,  birds,  vegetables,  and  fruit.  On  the  offering 
table  of  Situ  the  libation,  instead  of  being  allowed  to 
run  off,  was  collected  in  a  square  basin  divided  into 
stages  marking  the  height  of  the  Nile  in  the  Memphis 


tig,  236, — Impression  of  cylinder-seal,  First  Dynasty. 

reservoirs  at  the  different  seasons — 25  cubits  in  summer 
during  the  inundation,  23  in  autumn  and  at  the 
beginning  of  winter,  22  at  the  end  of  winter  and  in 
the  spring.  These  unusual  forms  do  not  as  a  rule 
contribute  to  beauty,  but  one  of  the  tables  of  offerings 
from  Saqqara  is  a  real  masterpiece  ;  it  is  in  alabaster. 
Two  lions  standing  side  by  side  support  a  rectangu- 
lar, slightly  sloping  table  with  a  groove  that  carried 
off  the  libations  into  a  vase  placed  between  the  tails 
of  the  animals. 


284 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


Fig.  237. — Perfume 
vase,  alabaster. 


The  alabaster  geese  of  Lislit  are  not  without  merit. 
They  are  cut   in   two  lengthways,  and  are  hollowed 
_  like  a  box.     But  as  a  rule  the  tables 

of  offerings  in  painted  limestone  are 
poor  in  taste  and  workmanship,  and  so 
are  the  figures  of  offerings,  the  loaves, 
cakes,  heads  of  o.xen  and  gazelle,  and 
the  bunches  of  black  grapes. 

They  are  not  very  numerous,  and 
come  chiefly  from  tombs  of  the  Fifth 
and  Twelfth  Dynasties.  The  canopic  jars,  on  the 
contrary,  were  always  carved  with  great 
care.  They  are  generally  either  of  limestone 
or  alabaster,  but  the  heads  that  form  the 
covers  are  often  of  painted  wood.  The 
canopic  jars  of  Pepi  I.  are  in  alabaster,  and 
so  are  those  of  the  king  who  w^as  buried  in 
the  southern  pyramid  of  Lisht,  as  well  as 
the  human  heads  upon  the  lids.  The  carving 
of  one  of  them  is  so  finely  executed  that 
it  can  only  be  compared  with  that  of  the 
statue  of  Khafra.  The  earliest  funerary  statuettes 
yet  found,  those  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty, 
are  of  alabaster,  but  from  the  time  of  the 
Thirteenth  Dynasty  they  were  also  carved 
in  limestone.  The  quality  of  the  work  is 
very  unequal.  Some  of  them  are  master- 
pieces, and  are  as  faithful  portraits  of  the 
deceased  as  any  statue  of  ordinary  pro- 
portions. Vases  for  perfume  formed  part 
of  the  outfit  provided  for  temples  and  tombs.  The 
nomenclature  of  these  is  very  far  from  being  fixed, 


Fig.  238.— 
Perfume 
vase,  ala- 
baster. 


Fig.  239.— 
Pe  rfu  me 
vase,  ala- 
baster. 


SEPUI.CIIRAI,    VASES   IN    STONE. 


285 


and  at  present  \vc  can  identify  ver}-  few  of  the  vases 
with  the  special  names  given  them  in  the  texts.  The 
larger  number  are  of  alabaster,  turned  and  polished. 
Some  are  heavy  and  ugly  (fig.  237),  while  others 
possess  an  elegance  and  diversity  of  form 
that  do  credit  to  the  inventive  genius  of 
the  men  who  made  them.  They  are 
spindle-shaped  (fig.  238),  or  round,  with  a 
flat  base  and  straight  rim  (fig.  239) ;  they 
have  no  ornament,  unless  occasionally 
handles  formed  of  two  lotus  buds,  two 
lions'  heads,  or  possibly  a  small  female 
head  projecting  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck  (fig.  240).  The  smallest  of  these 
did  not  contain  liquids,  but  pomades, 
medical  unguents,  or  salves  made  with 
honey.  One  of  the  most  usual  type  is  a  small  round 
jar  with  a  short  cylindrical  neck  and  flat  rim  (fig.  241). 
In  these  the  Egyptians  kept  powdered  charcoal  or 
antimony,  with  which  they  blackened  their  eyes  and 
eyebrows.  This  kohl-jar  was  perhaps  the  only  article 
for  the  toilette  that  was  in  common  use  among  all 
classes  of  society.  Some  of  them  were 
very  fantastic  in  form,  and  we  find 
many  of  them  in  the  shape  of  men, 
plants,  or  animals.  Among  others, 
there  are  a  full-blown  lotus  blossom, a 
sparrow-hawk,  a  hedgehog,  a  monkey 
clasping  a  column  against  his  breast  or  climbing  up 
a  jar,  a  grotesque  figure  of  the  god  Bes,  a  kneeling 
woman  whose  body  contained  the  powder,  or  a  young- 
girl,  nude,  holding  a  wine-jar.     The  ingenuit}'  of  the 


286 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


craftsmen  when  once  exercised  in  this  direction  was 
unbounded,  and  they  adapted  everything  to  their 
purpose — granite,  diorite,  breccia,  pink  jade,  alabaster, 


Fig.  242. — Black-topped  pottery. 


a  soft  Hmestone  adapted  for  fine  work,  and  a  material 
even  more  easily  worked,  namely,  pottery  painted 
and  glazed. 

Although    the    art   of   modelling,    decorating,   and 
firing  pottery  was   never  carried   to   such  perfection 


POTTERY 


287 


in  Egypt  as  it  was  in  Greece,  it  was  not  for  the 
want  of  the  crude  material.  The  valley  of  the  Nile 
supplies  a  variety  of  fine  ductile  clays  from  which 
great  results  might  have  been  obtained  had  it  been 
carefully  prepared,  but  in   many  cases  the  clay   was 


ffM¥^'' 


Fig.  243. — Red  burnished  potterj', 


taken  without  selection  from  any  place  where  the 
potter  happened  to  be  at  the  moment.  Badly 
washed,  badly  kneaded,  it  was  then  fashioned  with 
the  hand  or  a  primitive  hand-worked  wheel.  The 
firing  was  very  uncertain,  some  pieces  were  scarcely 
burnt  at  all  and  fall  to  pieces  while  in  water,  while 
others  are  as  hard  as  a  tile. 


288 


THE    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS. 


Fig.  244.— Pottery  fish, 
predynastic. 


Pottery  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  graves  of 
the  predynastic  period.  There  are  rough,  heavy  jars 
of  coarse  red  pottery  weighing  sometimes  twenty 
or  thirty  pounds,  each  of  which 
contained  food  offerings.  Of 
the  finer  varieties  there  are 
several.  A  finely  polished  red 
pottery  was  shaped  by  hand 
before  the  invention  of  the 
potter's  wheel.  Washed  with 
haematite  and  carefulh'  bur- 
nished, a  brilliant  black  was  obtained  on  the  upper 
part  during  the  firing.  Placed  upside  down  in  the 
kiln,  the  rim  was  covered  by  the  charcoal,  and  the 
iron  in  the  clay  became  deoxi- 
dised from  red  peroxide  to  black 
magnetic  oxide,  with  a  sub- 
crystalline  surface  (fig.  242). 
There  is  also  a  red  burnished 
pottery  (fig.  243)  sometimes 
made  in  a  variety  of  shapes  in 
the  form  of  fish  (fig.  244)  or 
birds,  and  red  pottery  painted 
with  cross  lines  in  white  slip 
in  imitation  of  basket-work 
(fig.  245),  or  with  floral  and  Fig 
other  designs. 

The  class  of  drab-coloured 
pottery  painted  with  designs  and  figures  in  dull  red 
is  of  peculiar  interest  as  presenting  us  in  a  few 
instances  with  pictorial  records  of  that  remote  time. 
Beside  cordage  designs,  chequers,  marbling  in  imitation 


245.  —Red  pottery 
with  basket-work  de- 
signs, predynastic. 


POTTERY. 


2^9 


Fig.  246. — Vase  painted  to  imitate 
mottled  stone. 


of  stone  vases  (fig.  246),  and  spirals,  many  oared 
galleys  with  cabins,  ensigns,  and  other  details  are 
rudely  represented,  and  also  figures  of  men,  animals, 
and  birds  (fig.  247). 

The  black  incised 
pottery  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin  was  also 
known  in  Egypt.  Deep 
bowls  made  of  a  soft 
fat  clay  lightly  baked, 
pricked  with  basket- 
work  patterns  and  the 

punctures  filled  in  with  white  clay  (fig.  248),  are 
found  in  predynastic  graves,  and  again  in  various 
localities,   and    at    later    periods,    at    Medum    of   the 

Third  Dynasty,  and  at 
Kahun  of  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty. 

All  tombs  of  the  Old 
Kingdom  contain  pottery 
of  a  red  or  yellow  ware, 
often  mixed,  like  the 
bricks,  with  finely  chopped 
straw  or  weeds.  It  con- 
sists mostly  of  large  solid 
jars  with  oval  bodies,short 
necks,  and  wide  mouths 
without    foot    or   handle. 


Fig.  247. — Decorated  vase, 
predynastic. 


With  them   are  found  pipkins  and  pots  in  which  to 
store   the    dead   man's   provisions,    bowls    of   various 
depths,    and    flat    plates.      The    surface    is    seldom 
19 


2go 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


smooth  or  glazed.  It  is  generally  washed  over  with 
a  coating  of  white  paint  which  flakes  off  at  the 
slightest  touch. 

The  town  of  Kahiin  supplied  domestic  pottery  of 
the  Middle  Kingdom.  Ring-stands  for  water-jars, 
flower-vases  with  three  separate  openings  or  spouts 
to  support  and  divide  the  flowers,  and  cylindrical 
vessels  with  a  small  hole  at  the  base  are  among  the 
most  remarkable.  Heavy  dishes  with  deeply  incised 
patterns  are  also  found. 

The  Theban  tombs  of  the  great  period  of  conquest 

have  provided  us  with 
sufficient  pottery  to  fill 
many  museums,  but  un- 
fortunately it  is  of  little 
interest.  There  are  the 
small  funerary  or //i-/^rt(^/'/ 
figures  shaped  by  hand 
out  of  a  lump  of  clay. 
A  bit  of  the  pottery 
pinched  with  the  fingers 
formed  the  nose,  while  two  dots  and  two  short  strips 
added  after  the  firing  supply  eyes  and  arms.  The 
better  ones  were  shaped  in  terra-cotta  moulds,  many 
of  which  have  been  found.  They  were  generally 
moulded  in  one  piece,  then  carefully  reworked,  burnt* 
painted  red,  yellow,  and  white,  and  finally  the  hiero- 
glyphs were  added  either  with  the  point  or  the  brush. 
Many  of  them  are  excellent  in  style  and  almost  equal 
to  those  carved  in  limestone.  The  iisJiabti  figures  of 
the  scribe  Hori,  preserved  in  the  Cairo  Museum, 
are   about    i6  inches  high,  and  they  show  what  the 


Fig.  248. — Black  incised  potter}-, 
predynastic. 


t>OTTERY. 


291 


Fig.     249. — Lenticular 

ampulla  of  Mykenaean 

type,  Eighteenth 

Dynasty. 


Egyptians  could  have  accomplished  had  they  chosen 

to  cultivate  this  branch  of  art. 

The  funerary  cones  were  purely  devotional  objects 

which  no  skill  could  have  succeeded 

in   rendering  beautiful.     They  are 

merely  conical  lumps  of  clay  drawn 

out    to    a    point   at  one   end,  and 

stamped  at  the  broader  end  with  a 

seal  bearing  the  names,  titles,  and 

parentage     of    its     possessor,    the 

whole    covered    with    a    wash    of 

whitish   colour.      They   were,   per- 
haps, intended  to  represent  offerings 

of  bread  to  secure  an  endless  supply 

of  food  for  the  deceased.     Many  of  the  jars  deposited 

in   the  tombs  are  painted  in   imitation  of  alabaster, 

granite,    basalt,   bronze,    and    even    gold,    and    were 

probably  cheap 
substitutes  for 
the  valuable  vases 
lavished  by  the 
rich  on  their  dead. 
Of  the  latter  part 
of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  pottery  is 
found  of  distinctly 
Mykenaean      type, 

Fig.  250.— False-necked  vase  of  Mykenaean    SUch     aS     the      len- 
type,  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  ticular    ampullae 

(fig.  249)  and  the  false-necked  vases  (fig.  250). 
Among  the  vases  intended  to  hold  flowers  and  Nile 
water,  some  are  covered  with  designs  outlined  in  red 


292 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


and  black  (fig.  251)  circles  and  concentric  lines 
(fig.  252),  wavy  lines,  religious  emblems  (fig.  253), 
cross  lines  resembling  fine  meshed  netting,  garlands 
of  flowers  or  of  buds,  or  leafy  stems 
carried  down  from  the  neck  to  the  body 
of  the  vase,  or  rising  from  the  body  to 
the  neck.  The  vases  from  the  tomb  of 
Sennetmu  have  a  large  collar  on  one 
side  similar  to  the  necklaces  placed  on 
mummies,  painted  with  the  brightest 
colours  in  imitation  of  natural  flowers  or  of  enamel. 
The  canopic  jars  in  pottery,  rare  during  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty,  became  increasingly  numerous  as  the  wealth 
of  Thebes  diminished.  The  heads,  more 
especially  the  human  heads  with  which  they 
are  covered,  are  generally  well  carved. 
Modelled  by  hand,  hollowed  to  lessen  their 
weight,  and  then  slowly  baked,  each  was  ''^- ^52- 
painted  with  the  special  colours  peculiar  to  the  genius 
whose  head  was  represented  by  it.  Tov/ards  the 
Twentieth  Dynasty  the  custom  was  established  of 
depositing  the  bodies  of  sacred  animals  in 
these  canopic  vases.  Those  found  near 
Ekhmim  contain  jackals  and  hawks  ;  those 
at  Saqqara  contain  mummied  snakes,  rats, 
and  eggs ;  while  those  at  Abydos  enclose 
the  ibis.  These  last  are  by  far  the  finest. 
The  body  of  the  vase  is  surrounded  by 
the  outstretched  wings  of  the  protecting 
goddess  Khuit,  while  Horus  and  Thoth  present  the 
bandage  and  jar  of  unguents  ;  the  whole  is  painted 
blue    and    red    on    a    white    ground.      Early    in    the 


Fig-  253. 


GLASS.  293 

Greek  period,  when  the  poverty  of  the  country  had 
increased,  pottery  was  used  not  only  for  canopic 
jars,  but  also  for  coffins.  In  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
at  Ahnas  el  Medinch,  in  the  Fayurn  at  Assuan,  and 
in  Nubia  there  are  entire  cemeteries  where  one  finds 
no  other  coffins  than  those  made  of  pottery.  Many 
resemble  oblong  boxes,  rounded  at  both  ends,  and 
with  a  saddle-back  cover.  Some  are  of  human  form, 
but  barbarous  in  style,  the  head  surrounded  by  a 
sort  of  sausage  that  represents  the  ancient  headdress, 
the  features  scooped  out  with  the  thumb,  or  perhaps 
some  tool,  while  two  small  lumps  placed  haphazard 
on  the  breast  indicate  the  corpse  of  a  woman.  But 
even  in  these  closing  years  of  Egyptian  civilisation 
it  is  only  the  very  roughest  specimens  that  are  left 
in  their  natural  colours.  Now,  as  formerly,  they  are 
almost  invariably  covered  with  paint,  or  with  richly 
coloured  glazes. 

Glass  was  known  to  the  Egyptians  from  the 
earliest  period.  Chemical  analysis  shows  that  the 
composition  was  almost  identical  with  our  own, 
but  in  addition  to  silica,  lime,  alumina,  and  soda,  it 
contains  a  relatively  considerable  proportion  of 
foreign  substances,  copper,  oxide  of  iron,  and  oxide 
of  manganese,  which  the  Egyptians  did  not  succeed 
in  eliminating.  Thus  the  glass  is  very  rarely  colour- 
less. It  possesses  an  indefinite  tint  that  approxi- 
mates to  green  or  yellow.  Some  pieces  of  poor 
manufacture  have  completely  rotted,  and  fall  into 
fragments  or  into  iridescent  powder  at  the  slightest 
touch.  Others  have  not  suffered  so  much  from  the 
action    of  time,   but  they   are    streaked    and    full    of 


294  THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

bubbles.       Others    again,    very    few    in     number,  are 
perfectly  clear  and  homogeneous. 

Uncoloured  glass  was  not  in  favour  as  it  is  with 
us.  Until  the  Roman  period,  whether  opaque  or  trans- 
parent, glass  was  almost  invariably  coloured.  This  was 
effected  by  mixing  metallic  oxides  with  the  ordinary 
ingredients — copper  or  cobalt  for  the  blue,  copperas 
for  the  greens,  manganese  for  the  violets  and  browns, 
iron  for  the  yellows,  lead  or  tin  for  white  :  one  variety 
of  red  contains  at  least  30  per  cent,  of  copper,  and 
when  exposed  to  damp  becomes  coated  with 
verdigris.  All  this  chemistry  was  empirical  and 
purely  instinctive.  The  workmen  collected  around 
them  the  necessary  materials  or  received  them  from 
afar,  and  they  then  proceeded  to  use  them,  often 
without  definite  knowledge  of  the  effect  they  were 
about  to  produce  :  many  of  their  most  harmonious 
combinations  were  the  result  of  chance,  and  they 
could  not  reproduce  them  at  will.  In  this  way  they 
sometimes  produced  very  large  pieces  :  classical 
authors  speak  of  glass  sarcophagi  stelae  and  columns 
made  in  one  piece,  but  glass  generally  was  only  used 
for  small  objects,  and  more  especially  in  imitation  of 
precious  stones. 

Cheaply  as  these  could  be  bought  in  the  Egyptian 
markets,  they  were  not  accessible  to  all,  and  the  glass- 
blowers  imitated  emerald,  jasper,  lapis  lazuli,  and 
carnelian  with  such  precision  that  we  are  often 
puzzled  at  the  present  day  to  distinguish  the  real 
from  the  false.  The  glass  was  run  into  stone  moulds 
of  the  desired  size  and  shape,  beads,  discs,  rings, 
pendants    for    necklaces,    narrow    rods,  and    plaques 


COLOURED   GLASS.  295 

bearing  figures  of  men  or  animals,  gods  and  goddesses. 
Eyes  and  eyebrows  for  stone  or  bronze  statues  were 
made  of  glass,  and  so  were  bracelets  for  their  wrists. 
Glass  was  used  as  an  inlay  for  hieroglyphs,  and 
entire  figures,  scenes,  and  inscriptions  in  glass  were 
inlaid  in  wood,  stone,  or  metal.  The  mummy-cases 
of  Netemt  are  decorated  this  way,  and  so  are  the 
coffins  of  luiya  and  Tuiyu,  the  grandparents  of 
Akhenaten.*  They  are  entirely  covered  with  gold 
leaf  with  the  exception  of  the  headdress  and  some 
details  ;  the  inscriptions  and  the  principal  part  of  the 
decoration  are  formed  of  these  brilliantly  coloured 
enamels,  which  contrast  well  with  the  gold  back- 
ground. The  mummies  of  the  Fayum  were  covered 
with  plaster  or  stucco  on  which  the  scenes  and 
texts,  which  elsewhere  were  merely  painted,  were 
inlaid  by  means  of  adjusting  the  pieces  of  glass 
and  then  reworking  them  with  the  chisel,  after 
the  fashion  of  a  bas-relief  Thus  in  the  case  of 
the  goddess  Maat  the  face,  hands,  and  the  feet 
are  in  turquoise  blue,  the  headdress  in  very  dark 
blue,  the  feather  in  alternate  strips  of  blue  and 
yellow,  the  robe  is  dark  red.  On  the  wooden  naos 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Daphnae,  and  on  a 
fragment  of  a  coffin  in  the  Turin  Museum,  the 
hieroglyphs  of  multi-coloured  glass  stand  out 
directly  on  the  dark  wooden  background,  and  the 
result  of  this  arrangement  is  extraordinarily  rich  and 
brilliant. 

Glass    filigree,    cut    and    engraved    glass,   soldered 
glass,  and  imitation  of  wood,  straw,  or  cord,  in  glass 

*  T-  M.  Davis,  The  Tomb  of  loniya  mid  Toniyon. 


2g6  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

were  all  known  to  the  Egyptians.  At  Cairo  there  is 
a  square  rod  made  of  a  number  of  strips  of  glass 
of  varied  colours  fused  together  and  forming  the 
cartouche  of  one  of  the  Amenemhats.  The  strips 
run  through  the  whole  length  of  the  rod  ;  wherever  it 
may  be  cut,  the  section  will  show  the  same  cartouche. 
Small  glass  objects  are  so  numerous  as  to  fill  an 
entire  case  in  the  Cairo  Museum.  One  represents 
a  monkey  on  all  fours  smelling  some  large  fruit 
lying  on  the  ground,  another  is  a  portrait  of  a 
woman,  full  face,  on  a  white  or  pale  green  background 
framed  in  red.  Most  of  the  plaques  merely  represent 
rosettes,  stars,  and  flowers,  either  single  or  in  a 
bouquet.  One  of  the  smallest  represents  an  Apis 
bull,  black  and  white,  walking  ;  the  work  is  so 
delicate  that  it  can  well  bear  examination  with  a 
microscope.  Most  of  these  objects  are  not  anterior 
to  the  first  Saite  dynasty  ;  but  excavations  at 
Thebes  and  at  Tell  el  xAmarna  have  proved  that 
as  early  as  the  eighteenth  century  B.C.  the  taste  for 
coloured  glass  had  arisen,  and  in  consequence  it  was 
commonly  manufactured  in  Egypt.  At  Deir  el 
Bahari,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Kings,  at  Gurnet  Murrai 
and  at  Sheikh  abd  el  Gurneh  not  only  have  amulets 
been  found  intended  for  the  use  of  the  dead,  such  as 
columns,  hearts,  mystic  eyes,  hippopotami  standing 
on  their  hind  legs,  and  pairs  of  ducks,  in  pottery  of 
mixed  colours,  blue,  red  and  yellow,  but  also  vases 
of  a  type  one  has  been  accustomed  to  consider  as 
Phoenician  or  Cypriote  workmanship. 

Here,   for  instance,  is   a   small   oenochoe  of  semi- 
opaque  light  blue  glass  (fig.  254)  inscribed  with  the 


COLOURED   GLASS   AND    ENAMELS. 


297 


of  Thoth- 
mes  III. 


name  of  Thothmes  III.,  the  ovals  on  the  neck  and  the 
pahns  on  the  body  of  the  vase  traced  in  yellow. 
Here  again  is  a  lenticular  ampulla  3}  inches  in 
height  (fig.  255)  in  dark  blue  glass  of 
admirable  purity  and  intensity  ;  over  this 
is  a  bold,  delicate  pattern  of  fern-leaves 
in  yellow.  Two  small  handles  of  trans- 
parent light  green  are  attached  to  the 
neck,  and  the  rim  is  surrounded  by  a 
yellow  fillet.  An  amphora  of  the  same 
height  is  dark  olive-green  and  semi- 
transparent  (fig.  256)  ;  a  band  of  blue  pj^  2i;4 — 
and  yellow  chevrons  confined  within  four  Parti-coloured 
yellow  lines  surrounds  the  body  of  the  beaming  n^a^mes 
vase  at  the  widest  part.  In  the  vault 
of  Deir  el  Bahari  by  the  side  of  the 
Princess  Nesikhonsu  there  were  goblets  of  similar 
workmanship  ;  seven  were  of  plain  glass,  light  green, 
yellow,  or  blue,  four  in  black  spotted 
with  white,  and  one  was  covered 
with  a  pattern  of  multi-coloured 
fern-leaves  arranged  in  two  rows 
(fig.  257).  Thus  the  manufacture 
of  glass  was  in  full  activity  as  early 
as  the  time  of  the  great  Theban 
dynasties.  Heaps  of  scoriae  mixed 
with  slag  mark  the  site  of  their 
furnaces  at  Medinet  Habu,  Tell  el 
Amarna,  at  the  Ramesseum,  at  El 
Kab,  and  at  the  Tell  of  Eshmuneyn. 

From  predynastic  times  the  Egyptians  enamelled 
stone.     At   least  half  of   the   scarabs,  cylinders,  and 


Fig.  255.— Parti- 
coloured lenticular 
glass  vase. 


298 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


amulets  we  admire  in  our  museums  are  in  limestone 
or  schist  covered  with  a  coloured  glaze.  Ordinary- 
clay,  no  doubt,  did  not  appear  to  them  suitable  for 
this  method  of  decoration.  They  re- 
placed it  by  various  kinds  of  frit,  some 
white  and  sandy  :  another  sort  was 
brown  and  fine  and  was  obtained  by 
pulverising  a  special  sort  of  limestone 
that  abounds  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Keneh,  Luxor,  and  Assuan.  A  third 
sort  was  reddish  and  mixed  with 
powdered  sandstone  and  powdered 
brick.  These  various  substances  are 
known  as  Egyptian  porcelain  or  Egyptian  faience, 
both  terms  being  equally  inaccurate.  The  earliest 
specimens  of  the  so-called  faience  were  covered  with 


Fig.  256. — Parti 

coloured  glass 

vase. 


.*:^ 


Fig.  257. — Parti-coloured  glass  goblets  of  Nesikhonsu. 

an  exceedingly  thin  coat  of  glaze  except  in  the 
hollows  of  the  hieroglyphs  and  figures  where  the 
vitreous  substance  accumulated  and  the  brilliant 
colour  stands  out  in  vivid  contrast  to  the  somewhat 


ENAMELLED   STONE   AND   GLAZED   WARE.      299 

dull  tone  of  the  surrounding  surface.  Under  the  early 
dynasties,  green  was  by  far  the  most  usual  colour  ; 
but  white,  red,  yellow,  brown,  violet,  and  blue  were 
also  used,  and  as  early  as  the  time  of  Menes  glazing 
in  two  colours  was  understood.  Blue  predominated 
in  the  Theban  manufactories  from  the  early  years 
of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  It  is  a  soft  brilliant  blue 
much  like  that  of  lapis  lazuli  or  turquoise.  The 
Cairo  Museum  formerly  possessed  three  hippopotami 
in  this  colour  discovered  at  Drah  abu'l  Neggeh  in  the 
tomb  of  an  Antef.  One  of  these  was  lying  down,  the 
others  standing  in 
the  marshes  ;  on 
their  bodies  the 
potter  has  drawn  in 
black  ink  sketches 
of  reeds  and  lotus 
among  which  birds    ifeipi«BP«6'"^"^'^?5'5!!^ 

and     butterflies     are      yig.  258.— Hippopotamus  in  blue  glaze. 

flying  (fig.  258).     It 

was  his   method  of  representing  the  animal  among 

his  natural  surroundings. 

The  blue  is  deep  and  brilliant  in  tone,  and  we 
must  take  a  flight  over  twenty  centuries  to  find  its 
equal  among  the  funerary  statuettes  from  Deir  el 
Bahari.  The  green  reappears  under  the  Saite 
dynasties,  but  paler  than  it  was  in  the  earlier  period. 
It  predominated  in  Lower  Egypt,  at  Memphis, 
Bubastis,  and  Sais,  but  without  entirely  eliminating 
the  blue.  The  other  colours  were  only  in  common 
use  during  four  or  five  centuries,  from  the  time  of 
A^hmes  I.   to  the    time  of  the  Ramessides.       It    is 


300 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


then,  and  then  only,  that  the  so-called  Respondants,  or 
lishabti  figures,  in  white  or  red  glaze,  rosettes  and 
lotus  flowers  in  }^ello\v,  red,  and  violet,  and  kohl- 
boxes  in  a  mixture  of  colours  abounded.  The 
potters  of  the  time  of  Amenhotep  III.  had  a  decided 
preference  for  shades  of  violet  and 
grey.  The  olive-shaped  amulets 
stamped  with  the  names  of  this 
Pharaoh  and  the  princesses  of 
his  family  bear  hieroglyphs  of 
pale  blue  on  a  very  delicate  mauve 
background.  The  vase  of  Queen 
Fig.  259.— Glazed  ware,   Tyi  in  the  Cairo  Museum  is  grey 

from  Thebes.  T  ,  .  ^    ,  ,  ^      \ 

With  a  mixture  of  blue  ;  round 
the  neck  there  are  bands  of  ornamentation  and 
inscriptions  in  two  colours. 

These  polychrome  glazes  attained  their  highest 
development  under  Akhenaten  ;  at  least,  it  is  in  the 
plain  of  Tell  el  Amarna  that  the  finest  and  best 
specimens  have  been  found  — 
green,  yellow,  or  violet  rings, 
white  or  blue  flowers,  fish,  lutes, 
figs,  and  bunches  of  grapes.  There 
is  a  small  figure  of  Horus  with 
a  red  face  and  a  blue  body,  and 
the  bezil  of  a  ring  with  the 
name  of  the  king  in  violet  on  a 

However  small  the  space,  the  colours  have  been 
laid  on  with  so  sure  a  hand  that  they  are  never 
confused,  but  contrast  vividly  with  each  other.  A 
vase  for  powdered  antimony,  chased  and  mounted  on 
a    pierced     stand,    is    of   a    uniform    reddish    browq 


Fig.  260. — Glazed  ware, 
from  Thebes. 


light  blue  ground. 


GLAZED  WARE. 


30 1 


Fig.  261. 


(fig.  259)  ;  another,  in  the  form  of  a  mitred  hawk,  is 
blue  with  black  spots,  it  belonged  formerly  to 
Aahmes  I.  ;  a  third,  carved  in  the  form  of  a  cheery 
little  hedgehog,  is  of  a  variable  green  (fig.  260).  The 
head  of  a  Pharaoh  in  dead  blue  wears  a  striped  linen 
headdress  of  dark  blue.  But,  fine  as  these  ^^ 
pieces  are,  the  finest  of  the  whole  series  is 
the  statuette,  now  at  Cairo,  of  Ptahmes,  chief 
prophet  of  Amon.  The  hieroglyphs  and  the 
details  of  the  mummy  wrappings  have  been  carved 
in  relief  on  a  white  background  of  admirable  uni- 
formity, filled  in  with  enamels  ;  the  face  and  hands 
are  of  turquoise  blue,  the  headdress  is  yellow  with 
violet  stripes,  the  hieroglyphs   and   the  vulture   that 

spreads  its  wings  over  the 
breast  are  also  violet.  The 
whole  figure  is  harmonious, 
delicate,  and  brilliant  ;  no 
flaw  mars  the  purity  of  the 
contour  nor  the  sharpness  of 
the  lines.  Glazed  pottery  was 
common  at  all  times.  The 
cups  with  a  foot  (fig.  261), 
the  blue  bowls  decorated  with 
mystic  eyes  lotus  flowers 
fish  (fig.  262),  and  palms, 
drawn  in  black  ink,  are  usually  of  the  Eighteenth, 
Nineteenth,  and  Twentieth  Dynasties.  The  lenticular 
ampullae,  covered  with  a  greenish  glaze,  and  decorated 
with  rows  of  beads  or  ovals  on  the  neck,  an  elaborate 
necklace  on  the  shoulders,  and  supplied  by  way 
of    handles    with    two    crouching    monkeys,    belong 


Fig.  262. — Decoralion  of  in- 
terior of  small  bowl, 
Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


302 


The  industrial  arts. 


almost,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  reigns  of  Apries  (the 
Hophra  of  the  Old  Testament)  and  of  Aahmes  II. 
(fig.  262,). 

The  Egyptians  loved  this  ware,  which  was  so  cool 
to  the  touch,  so  pleasant  to  the  eye,  and  so  easily 
kept  clean  ;  they  used  it  for  the  handles  of  sistra  and 
of  mirrors,  for  drinking-cups  in  the  form  of  half- 
opened  lotus  buds,  dishes,  and  plates.     An   immense 

piece  of  glazing  is  a  sceptre 
5  feet  high  with  a  separate 
head,  made  for  Amen- 
hotep  II.,  and  now  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum. 
It  appears  that  the  Egyp- 
tians carried  their  prefer- 
ence for  glazed  pottery  so 
far,  in  some  instances,  as 
to  cover  the  walls  of  their 
palaces,  temples,  and  tombs 
with  it.  Glazed  tiles  for 
fixing  on  walls  were  used 

Fig.  263.-Lenticular  vase,  glazed  during   the  Thinite   period, 
ware,  baite  period.  ^  ^ 

As  late  as  the  nineteenth 
century  one  of  the  chambers  of  the  step  pyramid  of 
Saqqara  still  retained  its  mural  decoration  of  glazed 
ware  (fig.  264).  Up  to  three-quarters  of  its  height 
it  was  faced  with  green  tiles,  oblong  in  shape,  slightly 
convex  in  front,  but  flat  at  the  back  (fig.  265)  ;  a 
square  projection  pierced  with  a  hole  served  to  fix 
the  tiles  at  the  back  by  means  of  a  flexible  strip  of 
wood  passed  horizontally  through  the  whole  row. 
The  three  rows  of  tiles  that  frame  the  lower  part  of 


GLAZED   TILES. 


303 


the  doorway  are  inscribed  with  the  titles  of  the 
Pharaoh  Zeser  of  the  Second  or  Third  Dynasty.  The 
hieroglyphs  are  in  blue,  red,  green,  and  yellow  on  a 
tawny  background.  Of  the  Sixth  Dynasty  there  is 
a  yellow  tile  on  which  is  the  name  and  Ka  name 
of  Pepi  I.,  and  there  arc  fragments  of  red  and  white 


Fig.  264. — Chamber  decorated  with  tiles  in  step  pyramid  of  Saqqara. 


tiles  of  Seti   I.  and  of  Sheshonk  (Shishak),   besides 
a  green  tile  bearing  the  name  of  Rameses  III. 

In  the  palace  of  Tell  el  Amarna  glazed  tiles  were 
used  in  abundance.  The  stone  columns  of  the  harem 
were  covered  with  glazed  and  moulded  tiles,  ribbed 
to  imitate  bundles  of  reeds,  and  filled  in  with  lotus 
buds  and  flowers  all  in  glazed  ware.  The  great  hall 
of  columns  had  a  very  beautiful  dado  of  green   tiles 


304  THE   INDUSTRIAL  ARTS. 

inlaid  with  white  daisies  and  violet  thistles.  The 
limestone  walls  were  inlaid  with  glazed  ware  and 
gleamed  with  great  hieroglyph  inscrip- 
tions of  gorgeous  colouring,  w4iile  both 
in  the  temple  and  the  palace  stones  were 
inlaid  in  other  stones,  white  alabaster  in 
red  granite,  or  tesserae  of  black  granite 
in  yellow  quartzite.*  This  method  of 
decoration   was   adopted  to  some  extent 

by  the  successors  of  Akhenaten.    At  Tell 
Fig.  265. — 
Tile  from  step  el    Yahudieh,     Rameses     III.    employed 

pyramid  of     lyjuch  the   same    scheme   for   his   temple. 

baqqara.  ^  ^ 

The  main  part  of  the  building  was  lime- 
stone and  alabaster,  but  the  scenes,  instead  of  being 
sculptured  in  the  usual  manner,  were  formed  of  a 
mosaic    of    stone    tesserae    and    glazed  _,    c;. 

pottery  in  about  equal  proportions.  The  i^^-^  ) 
element  most  frequently  introduced  into  V^  \^ 
the  scheme  of  decoration  was  a  circle,  y.  ^55  _ 
made  of  sandy  frit  coated  with  grey  or    Tile  inlay,  Tell 

,  ,  ,  1  •    1  el  Yahudieh. 

blue  glaze,  on  which  was  a  cream- 
coloured  rosette  (fig.  266).  Some  of  these  rosettes 
are  surrounded  by  geometric  designs  (fig.  267)  or 
spider-web  patterns,  and  some  represent 
open  flowers,  the  central  boss  in  relief, 
the  petals  and  tracery  inlaid.  These 
p.  ""~^_  circular  plaques,  which  vary  in  size  from 
Tile  inlay,  Tell    three-eighths    of   an    inch    to    4    inches, 

el  Yahudieh.        ^^^^^.^    ^^^^    ^^    ^^^    ^^,^j^    ^^^j^j^    ^^^^    ^^^^^ 

cement.      They    were    combined    to    form    ordinary 
designs,  such  as  scrolls,  foliage,  or  parallel  fillets  such 

*  W.  M.  F.  Petrie.  Tell  el  Antanta. 


TELL   EL   YAHCdIeH    TILES. 


305 


Fig.  268. — Inlaid  tiles, 
Tell  el  Yahiidieh. 


as  can  be  seen  on  the  foot  of  an  altar  and  the  base 
of  a  column  now  in  Cairo.  The  cartouches  were 
usually  made  in  one  piece,  and  so  were  the  figures  ; 
the  details,  either  incised  or  moulded  in  the  clay 
before  baking,  were  afterwards  covered  with  a  paste 
of  the  desired  colour.  The  lotus 
blossoms  and  leaves  that  decorated 
the  base  of  the  walls  or  the  cornice 
were,  on  the  contrary,  formed  of 
a  variety  of  pieces.  There  every 
colour  is  separate,  and  made  to  fit 
into  the  surrounding  pieces  with 
great  exactness  (fig.  268). 

The  temple  was  pillaged  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  ever  since  the  time  of 
Champollion  the  Louvre  has  possessed  figures  of 
prisoners  brought  from  there.  All  that  was  left  was 
destroyed  years  ago  by  dealers  in  antiquities,  and  the 

debris    dispersed. 

^A     '^ '\     V)         )  '%      Some    have    found 

their  way  to  the 
British  Museum. 
Mariette  recovered 
with  great  diffi- 
culty some  of  the 
most  important 
fragments,  includ- 
ing the  name  of  Rameses  III.,  which  gives  us  the 
date  of  the  building,  some  of  the  borders  of  lotus 
flowers  and  human-handed  birds  (fig.  269),  and  the 
heads  of  Asiatic  and  negro  slaves  (fig.  270).  The 
destruction  of  this  building  is  especially  annoying, 
20 


Fig.  269.— Tile  in  relief,  Tell  el  Yahudieh. 


306  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

because  apparentl}'  the  Egyptians  did  not  build  many 

of  the  same  type.     Rameses  III.  also  decorated  some 

part    of    his    temple    at    Medinet 

Habu   with   inlaid   enamels.      The 

Boston    Museum   possesses    a  fine 

series  of  tiles  that  apparently  came 

^^  from    there,  and    a    doorway   from 

Fie.  270.— Tile  in  re-    Medinet    Habu    is    now    at    Cairo. 

lief,  Tell  el  Yahudieh.     ^,  i    1     •    1  1  11     1    ^m 

Grlazcd  bricks  and  enamelled  tiles 
are  easily  injured,  and  that  would  be  a  very  serious 
drawback  in  the  eyes  of  a  people  who  regarded 
durability  as  being  of  the  highest  importance. 


2. IVORY,    WOOD,    LEATHER,    AND    TEXTILES. 

Ivory,  bone,  and  horn  are  somewhat  rare  in  our 
museums,  but  this  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that 
they  were  not  freely  used  by  the  Egyptians.  Horn 
does  not  last  well,  certain  insects  are  partial  to  it  and 
destroy  it  very  rapidly  ;  bone  and  ivory  soon  lose  their 
consistency  and  become  friable.  The  elephant  was 
known  to  the  Egyptians  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
it  is  possible  that  at  a  very  remote  period  the  animal 
existed  in  the  Thebaid.  As  early  as  the  Memphite 
dynasties  the  name  of  the  island  of  Elephantine  is 
written  with  the  figure  of  an  elephant.  Before  the 
time  of  Menes,  ivory  was  freely  used  for  combs  and 
hairpins,  decorated  with  figures  of  men,  birds,  or 
animals,  and  for  spoons  (fig.  271).  Rudely  carved  tusks 
were  also  placed  in  the  graves  (fig.  272).  Figures  of 
men  and  women — the  latter  wrapped  in  long  cloaks — 
inscribed  plaques,  cylinders,  and  tusks  inscribed   with 


IVORY   CARVINGS. 


307 


rows  of  animals,  birds,  and  human   figures  (fig.  273) 
are  also  found  of  the  earliest  dynastic  period. 

During  historical  times  ivory 
was  imported  into  Egypt  from  the 
Upper  Nile  in  the  form  of  tusks, 
or  half-tusks.  It  was  generally  left 
its  natural  colour,  but  occasionally 


-^ 


Fig.  271. — Ivory  spoon,  combs,  and  hairpins, 
predynastic.     At  Oxford. 


Fig.  272. — Tusk 
carved  with 
human  face. 


it  was  stained  green  or  red.     It  was  in  great  request 
for    inlaying    furniture,    chairs,    beds,    and    coffers  ; 


30^ 


TiiE  Industrial  arts. 


combs,  hairpins,  toilette 
ornaments,  and  delicately 
\vrought  spoons  (fig.  274) 
continued  to  be  made  of 
i\'ory,  and  so  were  dice, 
kohl -bottles  made  in  the 
form  of  a  hollow  column 
surmounted  by  a  capital, 
incense-burners  shaped  like 
a  hand  holding  a  bronze 
bowl  in  which  perfume  was 
burnt,  and  also  boomerangs 
covered  with  outlines  of 
divinities  and  fantastic 
animals.  Some  of  these 
objects  are  fine  works  of 
art,  as  for  instance  a  dagger 
handle  at  Cairo  in  form  of 
a  lion,  or  the  carved  ivory 
plaques  on  a  box  belonging 
to  Tuai,  who  lived  at  the 
end  of  the  Seventeenth 
Dynasty.  Of  the  Middle 
Kingdom  there  is  an  ivory 
gaming-board  6  inches  long 
by  4  inches  broad  with 
playing  pieces  also  carved 
in  ivory.  The  board  is 
shaped  like  an  axeblade, 
and  rests  on  four  ivory  bull's 
legs  ;  below  there  is  a  small 
drawer  of  ivory  and  ebony 


OBJECTS    IN    IVORY   AND    WOOD.  309 

c!osed  by  an  ivory  bolt  that  works  in  copper  staples. 
There  are  ten  ivory  playing  pieces,  five  with  dogs' 
heads  and  five  with  jackals'  heads.  The  ivory  of 
the  board  is  backed  with  sycamore  wood,  and  round 
the  edges  is  an  ebony  veneer  fixed  with  glue.* 
Another  object  which  also  comes  from  the  same 
excavations  in  the  eastern  valley  of  Deir  el  Bahari 
is  a  toilet  box  of  cedar  wood  veneered  with  ebony 
and  ivory.  Below  the  lid  there  is  a  tray  with  /^ 
partitions  and  a  hollow  to  hold  a  mirror  ; 
below  this  again  is  a  drawer  fitted  to  hold 
eight  alabaster  vases  of  cosmetics  ;  both  lid 
and  drawer  are  fitted  with  silver  knobs.  This 
was  the  property  of  Kemen,  keeper  of  the 
kitchen  department  to  Amcnemhat  IV. 
Engraved  on  the  ivory  plaque  in  front  is 
a  scene  of  Kemen  offering  vases  to  his 
sovereign.* 

Some  fine  statuettes  are  carved  in  ivory. 
The  seated  figure  of  Khufii  found  at  Abydos 
is  only  5  inches  high,  but  it  is  of  perfect  Fig.  274. 
and  most  delicate  workmanship.  There  is  a  —Spoon, 
figurine  dating  from  the  Fifth  Dynasty  that  has 
unfortunately  been  damaged,  but  which  still  bears 
traces  of  rose  colour,  and  a  miniature  figure  of  Abi 
who  died  under  the  Thirteenth  Dynasty.  Abi  is 
perched  on  the  top  of  a  lotus-flower  column  and 
gazes  straight  in  front  of  him  with  a  majestic  air, 
which  contrasts  comically  with  his  very  prominent 
ears.  The  work  is  broad  and  spirited  and  will  bear 
comparison  with  the  ivories  of  the  Renaissance. 

*  Lord  Carnarvon,  Five  Years  Exploration  of  Thebes,  1913. 


310 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


Egypt  is  not  rich  in  trees,  and  most  of  those  she 

possesses  are  useless  to  the  sculptor.     The  two  which 

are  most  abundant,  the  date-palm  and  the  dom-palm, 

are   coarse   and  uneven   in   fibre.     Some   varieties  of 

the  sycamore   and  acacia   are   the  only 

trees    that    provide    wood    suitable    for 

carving.      Wood     was     nevertheless    a 

favourite   material   for  cheap  and   rapid 

work,   and   at   times   it   was  chosen    for 

important    pieces    such    as    ka    statues. 

The  statue  of  the  SJicikJi  el  Beled  shows 

with   what   boldness  and  breadth  wood 

could   be  treated.     But  the  blocks   and 

beams  the  Egyptian  had  at  his  disposal 

were  seldom  either  broad  or  long  enough 

to   make   a  statue   in   one    piece.      The 

Sheikh  el  Beled,  which  is  under  life  size, 

is  carved  in  several  pieces,  joined  with 

square    pegs.       The    custom     therefore 

arose  of  reducing  the  subject  that  was 

to  be  carved  in  wood  to  a  size  that  could 

be    rendered    in   one    single    piece,  and 

under  the  Theban  Dynasties  the  statues 

of  early  days  have   become  statuettes. 

x^rt  lost  nothing  by  this  reduction,  and 

more  than  one  of  these  small  figures  is 

comparable  with  the  finest  work  of  the  Old  Kingdom. 

The  best  of  them   all   is  perhaps   one   in  the  Turin 

Museum   belonging  to  the   Twentieth   Dynasty.      It 

represents   a   young   girl    whose    only   clothing    is  a 

narrow^    girdle    round    the    waist.      She    is    at    that 

indefinite  age  when  the  undeveloped  figure  is  alrnost 


Fig.  275.— 
Wooden  statu- 
ette of  officer, 

Eighteenth 
Dynasty. 


WOODEN    STATUETTES. 


311 


as  much  like  that  of  a  boy  as  of  a  girl.  The  expres- 
sion of  the  face  is  roguish  and  pleasant,  and  the 
figure  at  a  distance  of  thirty  centuries 
is  in  fact  a  portrait  of  one  of  those 
graceful  little  maidens  of  Elephantine 
who  without  shame  or  immodesty 
walk  unclothed  in  sight  of  strangers. 
The  three  small  figures  of  men  at 
Cairo  are  probably  of  the  same  date 
as  the  Turin  figure.  They  are 
clothed  in  robes  of  state,  as  indeed 
they  should    be,    for   one   of  them, 

Hori,  surnamed  Ra,  was  a  favourite 
of  the  Pharaoh.  They  are  walking 
with  calm  and  even,  pace,  the  bust 
thrown  well  forward  and   the   head 

held  high  ;  their  expression  is  know- 
ing and  somewhat  furtive. 

An  officer  (fig.  275)  now  retired  to 

the  Louvre  is   in  the  semi-military 

costume    of    the    time    of    Amen- 

hotep    III.,    and    his   successors,    a 

small  wig,  a  tight-fitting  vest,  with 

short  sleeves.  A  kilted  skirt,stretched 

tightly  over  the  hips   and  reaching 

scarcely  half-way  to  the  knees,  has 

the  free  end  plaited  lengthways  and 

puffed  out  in  front  by  some  artificial 

contrivance.       Near    him    stands    a 

priest  (fig.  276)  with  a  w^ig  made  of 

rows  of  small  curls,  wearing  the  long  skirt  that  reached 

half-way  down  the  legs,  and  spread  out  in  front  in  a 


Fig.  276. — Wooden 

statuette  of  priest, 

Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


U2 


Til?:    INDUSTRIAL   ART.^ 


sort  of  plaited  apron.  With  both  hands  he  is  holding 
a  divine  symbol,  consisting  of  the  head  of  a  bull 
crowned  with  the  solar  disc,  supported  on  a  massive 
staff.  Both  officer  and  priest  are  painted  a  reddish 
brown  with  the  exception  of  the  hair,  which  is  black, 
the  corner  of  the  e)'es,  which  is  white,  and  the  sacred 
standard,  which  is  yellow.  Curiously  enough  their 
companion  in  a  glass  case,  the  little  lady 
Nai,  is  also  painted  brown,  and  not 
yellow,  the  regular  colour  for  women  in 
^Syp^  (fig-  277).  She  is  represented  in  a 
tight-fitting  garment,  trimmed  down  the 
front  with  white  embroidery.  Round  her 
throat  she  is  wearing  a  gold  necklace  of 
three  rows,  gold  bracelets  on  her  wrists, 
and  on  her  head  is  a  wig  with  tresses 
hanging  over  her  shoulders.  Her  right 
arm  is  hanging  down,  and  the  hand 
grasped  some  object,  now  lost,  probably 
a  mirror  ;  the  left  hand  is  holding  a  lotus 
bud.  The  figure  is  supple,  the  throat 
youthful  and  rounded,  the  expression  of 
the  broad  smiling  face  is  pleasant,  though 
not  entirely  free  from  vulgarity.  The 
headdress  is  heav}-,  but  the  bust  is  modelled  with 
purity  and  grace  of  form  ;  the  dress  defines  the 
contour  and  without  rendering  them  too  visible  the 
attitude  is  natural,  and  the  movement  by  which 
the  young  lady  presses  the  flowers  to  her  breast  is 
rendered  with  realistic  skill.  These  are  portraits, 
and  as  the  originals  were  not  people  of  exalted  birth, 
they  probably  did  not  employ  artists  of  the  highest 


Fig.  277.— 

Wooden 
statuette  of 
he  Lady  NaT. 


TOILET   ARTICLES. 


313 


^3 
Fig.  278. — Spoon,  wood. 

It  would  be  no  Hcrht  task 


repute.  They  must  have  had  recourse  to  unpretentious 
craftsmen,  and  the  knowledge  of  composition  and 
the  dexterity  of  manipulation  show  the  powerful 
influence  exercised  even  on  artisans  by  the  great 
school  of  sculpture  that  still   flourished  at  Thebes. 

This  influence  is  even 
more  apparent  when  we 
study  the  small  objects 
devoted  to  the  toilet  and 
those  for  household  use. 
to  attempt  to  describe  the  immense  variety  of  knick- 
knacks  on  which  the  ingenious  fancy  of  the  artists 
was  expended.  The  handles  of  mirrors  are  generally 
in  the  form  of  a  lotus  or  papyrus  stem,  ending  in  a 
full-blown  flower  to  which  the  disc  of  polished 
metal  is  affixed.  Or  they  are  sometimes 
formed  of  the  figure  of  a  girl  either  nude, 
or  clad  in  a  tight-fitting  garment,  bearing 
the  disc  on  her  head. 

The  tops  of  hairpins  were  formed  of  a 
coiled  snake,  of  the  head  of  a  jackal,  a  dog, 
or  a  hawk,  very  similar  to  those  of  the  archaic 
period.  The  stands  intended  to  hold  these 
pins  are  in  the  form  of  a  tortoise  or  a  hedge- 
hog with  holes  pierced  in  a  regular  pattern 
Fig.  279.—  on  the  carapace.  Headrests  which  served 
instead  of  pillows  for  the  head  are  decorated 
with  scenes  in  sunk  relief  from  the  myths  of  Bes  and 
Sekhet,  and  the  forbidding  countenance  of  Bes  is 
carved  on  the  lower  side  or  the  base.  But  the 
inventive  genius  of  the  craftsmen  was  more  specially 
roused  by  the  spoons  for  perfumes  and  the  kohl-vases. 


314 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


In  order  to  save  their  fingers,  spoons  were  used  for 
essences,  pomades,  and  for  the  various  dyes  with 
which  both  men  and  women  stained  their  cheeks  and 
lips,  their  eyelids,  nails,  and  the  palms  of  their  hands. 
The  designs  are  generally  derived  from  the 
flora  and  fauna  of  the  Nile.  A  spoon  in 
the  Cairo  Museum  represents  a  fox  in  full 
flight,  carrying  off  an  enormous  fish  in  his 
mouth,  the  body  of  the  fish  forming  the 
bowl  of  the  spoon  (fig.  278).  Another  is  a 
cartouche  that  rises  out  of  an  open  lotus 
flower,  or  a  lotus  fruit  placed  on  a  bouquet 
of  flowers  (fig.  279),  or  a  simple  triangular 
bowl,  flanked  by  two  flower  buds  (fig.  280). 
The  most  elaborate  spoons  combine  a  human 
figure  with  these  designs.  A  girl,  nude 
except  for  a  girdle  round  the  hips,  is  swim- 


Fig.  280. 

Spoon. 


ming  with  her  head  well  above  water  (fig.  281).  Her 
extended  arms  support  a  duck,  the  body  of  which 
is  hollowed  out,  while  the  two  movable  wings  serve 
as  a  cover. 

Not  in  ivory  or  wood,  but  ver}'  delicately  modelled 


Fig.  281. — Spoon,  \v 


ood.     At  New  York. 


in  glazed  ware  is  another  spoon  found  in  191 3  in  the 
Oxford  excavations  at  Merawi.  This  dates  from^ 
about  the  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty.  The  figure  of 
the  swimming  girl  is  almost  identical  with  that  just 


PERFUME   SPOONS. 


31S 


-!&•>- 


described  (fig.  281),  but  the  arrangement  of  the  hair 

is  sHghtly  different.     It  is  brushed  back 

close  to  the  head  and  then  arranged  in 

a   large  knot   behind  ;   her  outstretched 

arms   support    an    oblong    tray.      The 

details  of  the  tiny  figure  are   perfectly 

rendered.    The  ears  pierced  for  earrings, 

the  slender  hands  and  fingers,  the  fingers 

and  toes  all  bear  close  examination. 
At   the   Louvre   there  is  also    a   girl 

(fig.   282)  partly   concealed    among   the 

lotus  plants,  from  which  she  is  gathering 

a  bud.     A  bundle  of  stems,  from  which 

two  full-blown  flowers  emerge,  unite  the 

handle  to  the  bowl  of  the  spoon,  which 

in    this    case    is    reversed,   the    pointed 

end  being  attached  to  the  handle.     In 

another  the  girl  is  framed  by  two  flowering  stems, 
and  is  playing  on  a  long-necked  lute  as 
she  walks  (fig.  283),  or,  again,  the  musician 
is  standing  on  a  boat  (fig.  284),  or  her 
place  is  taken  by  a  woman  bearing  offer- 
ings. Sometimes  a  slave  is  represented 
bending  under  the  weight  of  an  enormous 
sack. 

The  physiognomy  and  the  age  of  each 
of  these  tiny  persons  are  very  clearly 
characterised.  The  girl  gathering  lotus  is 
of  good  birth,  as  is  indicated  by  thg 
dressing  of  her  hair  and  the  pleated  lineq 
of  her  skirt.  The  young  Theban  ladies 
wore  long  garments,  and  she  has  only  gathered  up 


Fig.  282.- 
Spoon. 


Fig.  283. 
Spoon, 


i6 


thb:  industrial  arts. 


her  dress  in  order  to  avoid  wetting  it  as  she  makes 
her  way  through  the  reeds.  The  two 
girls  playing  lutes  are,  on  the  contrary, 
of  inferior  birth.  One  is  satisfied  with 
a  mere  girdle  round  the  hips,  and  the 
other  has  only  a  short  petticoat  carelessly 
arranged.  The  girl  bearing  offerings 
(fig.  285)  wears  the  long  pendant  tress 
which  was  distinctive  of  childhood.  She 
is  one  of  the  slim,  slender  girls  we  know 
so  well  among  the  fellahin  of  to-day. 
Her  lack  of  clothing  therefore  does  not 
prove  that  she  was  not  of  gentle  birth, 
for  even  the  children  of 
the  nobles  did  not  wear 
the  garments  of  their 
sex  before  the  period  of 

adolescence.     The  slave  (fig.  286),  with 

his  thick  lips,  his  flat  nose,  his  heavy 

animal  jaw,  his  retreating  forehead,  and 

his  conical  head,  is  evidently  a  carica- 
ture   of   some    foreign    prisoner.      The 

sullen     demeanour     with     which     he 

slouches    along    under    his    burden    is 

admirably  caught,  and  the  angularities 

of  his  body,  the  shape  of  his  head,  and 

the  disposition  of  the  various  parts  all 

recall   the  general   appearance    of  the 

grotesque    terracotta    figures    of   Asia 

Minor.     The    natural  objects,  such  as   f"'- 285-Spoon. 

leaves,  flowers,  or  birds  that  are  grouped  round  these 

principal  figures,  are  skilfully  and  truthfully  arranged. 


HOUSEHOLD   FURNITURE. 


317 


Thus  in  the  case  of  the  three  ducks  tied  together  by 
tlie  legs,  carried  by  the  girl  bearing  offerings,  two 
have  resigned  themselves  to  their  fate,  and  are  swing- 
ing with  outstretched  necks  and  open  eyes,  while  the 
third  has  lifted  up-  its  head  and  is 
flapping  its  wings  in  protest.  The  two 
water-birds  we  see  perched  on  the 
lotus  plants  listening  to  the  lute  are 
entirely  at  ease  with  their  heads  on 
their  breasts.  They  know  by  experi-  /f Bt/  / 
cnce  that  they  need  not  disturb  them- 
selves for  a  song,  and  that  they  have 
nothing  to  fear  from  a  girl  who  carries 
no  alarming  weapon.  The  sight  of  a 
bow  and  arrow  would  put  them  to 
flight.  The  Egyptians  were  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  habits  of  wild 
creatures,  and  they  delighted  in  re- 
presenting them  with  exactitude.  The 
habit  of  observing  the  minutest  facts 
was  instinctive  with  them,  and  in 
consequence  even  the  smallest  piece  of 
work  was  certain  to  be  characterised 
by  a  marvellous  degree  of  realism. 

The  variety  of  furniture  used  in 
ancient  Egypt  was  no  greater  than  it 
is  at  the  present  day.  The  poor  were 
contented  with  a  few  mats  which  they  rolled  up  by 
day.  Those  who  were  somewhat  better  off  possessed 
stools,  low  frame  beds  like  the  Nubian  angareb,  and 
some  chests  and  boxes  of  various  sizes  to  hold  tools 
or    linen.      The    nobles    had    chairs    and    divans    in 


Fig.  286. 


3i8 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ART!?. 


addition,  such  as  those  found  in  the  tomb  of  the 
parents  of  Queen  Tyi.  The  art  of  the  cabinet-maker 
had  attained  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection  early 
in  the  dynastic  period.  Boards  were 
worked  with  the  adze,  mortised,  glued, 
and  fitted  together,  and  fastened  with 
pegs  of  hard  wood,  or  with  the  thorns 


Fig.  287.— Chest. 


of  the  acacia,  never  with  metal  nails. 


Fig.  288.— Chest. 


They  were  then  polished  and  ready  to 
be  painted.  Chests  generally  stand  on  four  straight 
feet,  sometimes  of  considerable  height.  The  cover 
is  either  flat  or  rounded 
according  to  a  special  curve 
which  was  popular  with 
the  Egyptians  at  all  periods 
(fig.  287),  or,  very  rarely, 
they  were  sloped  to  a  ridge 
like  the  roofs  of  our  houses 
(fig.  288).  Generally  the 
whole  lid  lifts  off,  but  occasionally  it  turns  on  a  peg 
inserted  in  one  of  the  corners  at  the  top,  or  it  opens 

at  the   side   on    two    wooden 

pivots  (fig.  289).     The  panels 

are    admirably    adapted    for 

decoration    and    are    covered 

with  paintings,  or  inlaid  with 

ivory,  silver,  enamel  plaques, 

or   with   valuable  woods.     It 

Fig.  289.— Chest.  is  possible    that  we    are   not 

in    a    position    to   judge   of  the   skill    possessed    by 

the    Egyptians    in    this    branch    of    art,    nor    of   the 

variety    of    shapes    invented    by    them    at    various 


WOODEN    SARCOPHAGI. 


319 


periods,  as  most  of  their  furniture  that  wc  possess  has 
been  found  in  tombs,  and  some  of  it  may  have  been 
cheap  imitation  provided  for  the  purpose,  or  of 
special  design  reserved  for  the  use  of  mummies. 

It  was  these  mummies  who  were  the  most  profit- 
able customers  of  the  cabinet-makers.  Everywhere 
else  man  carried  only  a  small  number  of  objects  with 
him  into  the  next  world,  but  in  Egypt  he  was  content 
with  nothing  less  than  a  complete  outfit.  The  coffin 
itself  was  a   serious  piece  of  work  that  employed  a 


whole    gang   of  workmen    (fig.    2( 


The    method 


Fig.  290. — Construction  of  a  mummy  case,  wall  scene, 
Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


varied  at  different  periods.  At  the  time  of  the 
Memphite  empire  and  the  first  Theban  empire,  the 
coffins  are  almost  without  exception  huge  rectangular 
chests  of  sycamore-wood,  flat  both  at  top  and  bottom, 
the  various  parts  joined  together  with  wooden  pegs. 
The  shape  is  not  elegant,  but  the  decoration  is  very 
interesting.  The  cover  has  no  cornice,  and  the 
centre  of  it  is  occupied  by  a  long  band  of  hieroglyphs 
on  the  outside,  sometimes  written  with  ink  or  painted, 
sometimes  carved  in  the  wood  and  then  filled  in  with 
a  bluish  paste.  This  inscription  gives  merely  the 
name  and  titles  of  the  deceased,  occasionally  followed 


320  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

by  a  short  formula  of  prayer  on  his  behalf.  The 
inside  is  covered  on  the  surface  with  a  thick  coating  of 
stucco,  or  it  is  whitewashed.  On  this  the  seventeenth 
chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  is  generally  written 
with  red  and  black  ink  in  fine  cursive  hieroglyphs. 
The  coffin  itself  consists  of  eight  vertical  planks,  two 
at  each  side  and  at  the  ends,  and  three  horizontal 
planks  at  the  bottona.  On  the  outside  it  is  some- 
times decorated  with  wide  parallel  lines  of  colour 
ending  in  intertwined  lotus  leaves,  correspond- 
ing to  the  grooves  on  the  stone  sarcophagi.  More 
often  the  coffin  has  two  large  open  eyes,  and  two 
monumental  doors  on  the  left,  and  three  doors  on  the 
right,  precisely  like  those  found  in  the  rock-cut  tombs 
of  the  period.  The  coffin  is  in  fact  the  house  of  the 
deceased,  and  as  such  it  was  necessary  that  its  walls 
should  bear  a  summary  of  the  prayers  and  pictures 
that  covered  the  walls  of  the  tomb.  The  formula 
and  necessary  representations  were  inscribed  and 
shown  on  the  inside,  in  about  the  same  order  in 
which  we  find  them  in  the  mastabas.  Every  side  is 
divided  into  three  registers  and  every  register  con- 
tains either  a  dedication  in  the  name  of  the  occupant 
or  a  picture  of  the  objects  belonging  to  him,  or  texts 
of  the  ritual  recited  for  his  benefit.  When  this  was 
skilfully  done  on  a  background  painted  to  look  like 
fine  wood,  the  whole  effect  was  bold  and  harmonious. 
Only  a  small  share  of  the  work  fell  to  the  cabinet- 
maker, and  the  long  boxes  in  which  the  earliest 
mummies  were  enclosed  demanded  little  skill  on  his 
part.  But  this  was  not  the  case  with  coffins  that 
were  made  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  human  form. 


TYPES   OF   WOODEN    COFFINS.  32 f 

Of  these  we  have  two  types.  In  the  earliest  of  the 
two  the  coffin  followed  the  lines  of  the  mummies. 
The  feet  and  legs  are  joined  together  throughout 
their  length  :  the  slight  projection  of  the  knees,  the 
rounding  of  the  calf,  and  the  outline  of  the  thighs  and 
the  trunk  are  summarily  indicated,  as  though  they 
were  vaguely  modelled  under  the  wood.  The  head, 
the  only  living  part  of  the  inert  body,  is  entirely 
disengaged.  In  this  type  the  man  was  imprisoned 
in  a  sort  of  statue  of  himself,  which  was  so  well 
balanced  that  it  could  be  stood  up  on  end  when 
desired. 

In  the  second  type  the  man  appears  to  be  lying 
down  on  his  coffin  ;  his  statue  carved  in  the  round 
forms  a  cover  for  his  body.  On  his  head  is  his  large 
curled  wig,  the  breast  is  scarcely  concealed  by  his 
vest  of  almost  transparent  white  material,  the  petti- 
coat with  its  symmetrical  folds  covers  his  legs,  on  his 
feet  are  elegant  sandals,  and  his  hands  clasp  various 
emblems,  the  aiikJi,  the  girdle  tie,  the  dad,  or  in  the 
case  of  the  wife  of  Sennetmu  at  Cairo,  a  wreath 
of  ivy. 

This  sort  of  mummiform  casing  is  rare  under  the 
Memphites.  Menkaura,  the  Mycerinus  of  the  Greeks, 
has,  however,  left  us  a  noteworthy  example.  They 
were  very  common  under  the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  but 
at  that  time  they  were  often  little  more  than  the 
hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree,  with  a  human  head  and  feet 
roughly  hewn  out.  The  face  is  daubed  with  brilliant 
colours,  yellow,  red,  and  green  ;  the  hair  and  head- 
dress are  painted  with  black  or  blue  stripes.  A 
necklace  is  ostentatiously  displayed  at  the  breast  ; 
21 


^22 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


the  remainder  is  either  covered  with  the  gilded 
feathers  of  Isis  and  Nephthys,  the  two  mourning 
goddesses,  or  plastered  with  a  thick  wash  of  uniform 
colour  either  yellow  or  white,  on  which  is  a  scant)' 
decoration    of     figures    and     bands     of    hieroglyphs 


Fig.  291. — Mask  of  coffin  of  Rameses  II., 
tempo.  Twenty-first  Dynasty. 

painted  black  and  blue.  The  most  elaborate  royal 
coffins  of  the  Eighteenth  D\nasty  that  I  excavated 
at  Deir  el  Bahari  belong  to  this  type,  and  are  only 
distinguished  b>'  the  finish  of  the  work  and  by  the 
extraordinary  perfection  with  which  the  artist  re- 
produced the  features  of  the  sovereign.  The  mask 
of  Aahmes  I.,  of  Amenhotep  I.,  and  of  Thothmes  II. 


THE   DEtR    EL   BAHARI    COFFINS. 


323 


are  actual  masterpieces  of  this  species  of  work, 
mask  of  Rameses  II.  shows  no  trace 
of  painting  except  a  black  groove 
inserted  to  accentuate  the  e}'e.  It 
is  undoubtedly  a  portrait  of  the 
Pharaoh  Herihor  who  restored  the 
funerary  furniture  of  his  powerful 
predecessor,  and  is  almost  com- 
parable to  the  best  examples  of 
contemporary  statuary  (fig.  291). 
Two  coffins,  those  of  Queen 
Aahmesnefertari  and  her  daughter 
Aahhotep  II.,  are  of  immense  size 
and  measure  more  than  loh  feet  in 
height.  When  standing  upright 
(fig.  292)  they  might  almost  be  mis- 
taken for  some  of  the  car}'atids  in 
the  court  of  Medinet  Habu,  though 
on  a  smaller  scale.  The  body  is 
represented  swathed  in  bandages 
and  only  faintly  suggests  a  human 
form.  A  network  in  relief,  with 
each  mesh  standing  out  in  blue  on 
the  yellow  background,  fits  tightly 
to  the  neck  and  shoulders,  and 
forms  a  kind  of  mantle,  from 
which  the  hands  emerge,  and  are 
crossed  on  the  breast  clasping  the 
a;i/i/i,   the    sign  of  life. 


Th( 


Fig.  292.- 


The    head  Mummy-case  of  Queen 
,       .,      ,,         r  J  J       Aahmesnefertari. 

IS    a    portrait,   the    face    round    and 
broad,  the  eyes  wanting  in  intelligence,  the  expres- 
sion   mild    and    characterless.      Above     the    heavy 


324  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

wig  are   the   headdress   and    stiff  feathers    of   Amon 
or  Mut. 

It  may  well  be  asked  what  motive  the  Egyptians 
could  have  had  in  manufacturing  these  extraordinary 
productions.  Both  queens  were  small  women  and  their 
bodies  were  lost  in  such  huge  coffins.  They  had  to  be 
wedged  in  and  padded  with  rags  to  prevent  their 
rolling  about  and  being  injured.  Apart  from  their 
size  the  coffins  are  characterised  by  the  same  sim- 
plicity as  that  which  distinguishes  all  of  that  period, 
v/hether  of  ro}'al  or  private  personages.  About  the 
middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  there  was  a  change 
of  fashion  :  one  single  coffin  soberly  adorned  was  no 
longer  sufficient  ;  it  was  necessary  to  have  two  or 
three  or  even  four  inside  one  another,  profusely 
decorated  with  paintings  or  inscriptions.  At  this 
time  the  outer  casing  was  often  a  sarcophagus  with 
short  square  posts  or  handles  at  the  corners  and  a 
ridged  or  saddle-back  lid  painted  in  white  on  the 
lower  side  and  covered  with  figures  of  the  deceased 
in  adoration  before  the  gods  of  the  Osirian  group. 
When  the  coffin  is  shaped  in  human  form,  some  of 
the  former  bareness  of  decoration  is  still  retained  :  the 
face  is  coloured,  there  is  a  necklace  spread  on  the 
breast,  and  a  band  of  hieroglyphs  extends  to  the  feet. 
The  rest  is  of  a  uniformi  colour,  black,  brown,  or  a 
dull  yellow.  The  inner  coffins  are  decorated  to  an 
almost  extravagant  degree.  The  face  and  hands  are 
red,  rose-coloured,  or  gilded.  The  jewellery  is  re- 
presented either  by  painting  or  by  enamels  inlaid 
in  the  wood,  and  there  are  scenes  and  texts  in  a 
variety  of  colours,  the  whole  covered  with  the  yellow 


MUMMY-CASES   OF    NINETEENTH    DYNASTY.     325 

varnish  already  referred  to.  The  contrast  between 
the  abundant  ornamentation  of  this  period,  and  the 
simph'city  of  the  earHer  work  is  very  striking.  It  is 
to  Thebes  itself  that  we  must  look  for  an  explana- 
tion. Private  people  as  well  as  the  Pharaohs  of  the 
period  of  conquest  devoted  their  full  energy  of 
resources  to  the  construction  of  their  rock  tombs. 
There  the  walls  formed  one  vast  picture,  and  the 
sarcophagus  was  a  colossal  block  of  finely  worked 
granite  or  alabaster.  It  mattered  Httle  that  the 
coffin  in  which  the  mummy  reposed  should  be  only 
slightly  decorated.  But  the  Egyptians  of  the  de- 
cadence and  their  rulers  could  no  longer  draw  on  the 
wealth  of  Egypt  and  of  surrounding  countries  as  their 
predecessors  had  done.  They  were  poor,  and  most 
of  them  had  to  renounce  any  attempt  at  constructing 
elaborate  tombs.  They  devoted  the  money  they  had 
at  command  to  providing  themselves  with  fine  coffins 
of  sycamore-wood.  The  splendour  of  their  mummy- 
cases  is  therefore  only  another  proof  added  to  those 
we  already  possess  of  their  weakness  and  poverty. 
When  the  Saite  Pharaohs  succeeded  in  re-establish- 
ing the  prosperity  of  the  country,  stone  sarcophagi 
once  more  appeared,  and  the  wooden  coffin  to  some 
extent  returned  to  the  simplicity  of  the  time  of 
prosperity  and  fine  art  ;  but  this  revival  was  not  of 
long  duration,  and  the  Macedonian  conquest  led  to 
changes  in  funerary  customs  similar  to  those  that 
followed  the  downfall  of  the  Ramessides.  The 
custom  of  employing  double  or  treble  coffins  with 
excess  of  painting  and  crude  gilding  once  more 
revived.     The  skill  of  the  workpeople  who  prepared 


326 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


the  inhabitants  of  Ekhmim  for  their  last  resting-place 
was  even  less  than  that  of  the  funerary  undertakers 
who  lived  under  the  obscure  Ramessides  of  the 
Twentieth  Dynast}^  and  in  the  matter  of  bad  taste 
they  were  fully  equal  to  them.  A  series  of  Gra:^co- 
Roman  examples  from  the  Fayum  exhibits  the  stages 


Fig.  293.  — Panel  portrait,  Graeco-Roman,  at  National  Galler}'. 
Hawara,  Biahniu  and  Arsinoe,  W.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


by  which  portraiture  in  the  flat  then  replaced  the 
modelled  mask,  until  towards  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  A.D.  it  became  customary  to  bandage  over 
the  face  of  the  mummy  a  panel  portrait  of  the  dead 
as  he  was  in  life  (fig.  293). 

The  remainder  of  the  funerary  outfit  involved  as 


FUNERARY    FURNITURE.  327 

much  work  for  the  cabinet-maker  as  the  coffins 
themselves.  Chests  of  different  sizes  were  required 
to  hold  the  garments  of  the  deceased,  and  to  contain 
the  viscera,  and  for  the  respondants^  the  usJiabti 
figures  ;  tables  for  his  meals,  chairs,  stools,  beds  for 
the  mummy  ;  hearses  to  convey  him  to  his  tomb,  and 
chariots  both  for  war  and  for  pleasure.  The  boxes 
that  contained  the  canopic  vases,  the  usJiabti  figures, 
and  the  libation  vases  were  divided  into  several 
compartments,  sometimes  guarded  on  the  lid  by  a 
jackal,  which  also  served  as  a  handle.  Each  box 
was  mounted  on  a  small  sledge,  on  which  it  could  be 
'drawn  in  the  funeral  procession. 

Beds  are  not  uncommon.  Those  that  resemble  the 
Nubian  angareb  are  mere  wooden  frames,  with  coarse 
linen  or  crossed  strips  of  leather  stretched  across 
them.  The  greater  number  are  less  than  5  feet  in 
length  ;  the  sleeper,  therefore,  could  never  have 
stretched  himself  at  full  length,  but  must  have  curled 
himself  up.  The  decorated  bedsteads  were  of  very 
much  the  same  type  as  our  own.  Generally  they  were 
horizontal,  but  occasionally  they  sloped  slightly  from 
the  head  to  the  foot.  They  often  stood  some  height 
from  the  ground,  and  were  climbed  into  with  the  help 
of  a  stool  or  a  set  of  portable  steps.  These  details 
were  only  known  to  us  by  pictured  wall  paintings  till 
1884-5,  when  I  discovered  two  complete  beds,  one  at 
Thebes,  in  a  tomb  of  the  Thirteenth  Dynasty, 
another  at  Ekhmim,  in  the  Gra^co-Roman  necropolis. 
The  sides  of  the  later  bed  were  formed  of  two  lions, 
kindly  animals,  whose  heads  supported  the  top  of  the 
bed,  and  whose  tails  curved  over  the  foot.     Over  this 


328 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


bed  there  was  a  species  of  canopy,  which  was  used  at 
any  rate  during  the  funeral  ceremonies.  A  similar 
canopy  had  already  been  found  by  Rhind,  and  pre- 
sented by  him  to  the  Edinburgh  Museum  (fig.  294). 
It  is  in  the  form  of  a  temple,  with  a  rounded  top, 
supported  by  graceful  miniature  columns  of  painted 
wood.  A  door  guarded  by  two  serpents  was  supposed 
to  afford  access  to  the  interior.     Three  winged  discs, 


Fig.  294. — Carved  and  painted  mummy  canopy,  Thirteenth  Dj-nasty. 


graduated  in  size,  are  ranged  in  the  three  superposed 
cornices  over  the  doorway,  and  the  structure  is 
crowned  by  uraei  drawn  up  in  line.  The  canopy  of 
the  Thirteenth  Dynasty  bed  is  much  less  complicated. 
It  is  a  sort  of  wooden  balustrade  carved  and  painted 
to  resemble  bundles  of  reeds,  the  hotesu  pattern  em- 
ployed to  decorate  the  upper  part  of  temple  walls. 
Above  this  there  is  the  usual  cornice.  In  the  mummy 
couch  of  the  Gra^^co-Roman  period  (fig.  295)  the  side 
balustrade    is    replaced    by   crouching   figures  of  the 


FUNERARY   CANOPIES.  329 

goddess  Maat,  sculptured  and  painted,  with  her 
feather  in  her  hand.  At  the  head  and  foot  stand 
Isis  and  Nephthys,  waving  their  arms  fringed  with 
wings.  The  upper  part  is  in  open  work,  and  three 
vultures  hover  over  the  mummy,  and  kneeling  figures 
of  Isis  and  Nephthys  weep  over  it. 

The  sledges  that  conveyed  the  dead  to  their  tombs 
were  also  provided  with  canopies,  but  totally  different 
in  appearance.  The  sledge  canopy  is  also  a  naos, 
but  with  solid  sides,  similar  to  those  found  by  me  in 


Fig.  295. — Mummy-couch  with  canopy,  Graeco-Roman, 

1886  in  the  chamber  of  Sennetmu.  When  there  were 
any  openings  they  were  square,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
allow  the  head  of  the  mummy  to  be  seen.  Wilkinson 
describes  one  of  these  canopies  from  paintings  in  a 
Thcban  tomb  (fig.  296).  In  all  cases  the  panels 
could  be  removed.  When  the  mummy  had  been 
placed  in  the  sledge,  the  panels  were  replaced  and 
the  curved  roof,  with  its  many-coloured  cornice,  was 
shut  down,  and  the  whole  closed  in. 

Many  of  the  chairs   in  the  British  Museum  and  the 
Louvre  date  back  to  the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  and  are 


330 


THE    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS. 


Fig.  296. — Mummy-sledge  and  canopy. 


equal  to  some  of  later  date.    One  of  them  (fig.  297)  has 
retained  its  brilliance  of  colour  to  a  remarkable  extent. 

The  frame,  for- 
merly filled  in  with 
a  network  of  cords, 
stands  on  four 
lion's  feet.  The 
back  is  decorated 
with  two  flowers 
and      a     row     of 


lozenges  in  mar- 
queterie  work  of 
ebony    and     ivory 

on   a    red  ground.      Stools   of  similar    workmanship 

(fig.  298),  or  folding  stools  with  feet  in  form  of  the 

flattened    heads    of   geese,  _«_«^ 

are    to    be    found    in     all    *'^'  "  ' 

museums.      Pharaohs   and 

functionaries  of  high  rank 

sought  for  more  elaborate 

designs,  and  their  seats  are 

at    times    very    high.      A 

painting  of   a    royal   chair 

shows   the   lower   supports 

made  of  prisoners  of  war 

bound    back   to  back   (fig. 

299).       A    step    placed    in 

front    of   the    chair  served  ^'^-  ^97 

also    as    a    footstool.      No 

complete  example  of  this  type  of  chair  has  yet  been 

found.     Arms    were    also    provided    for    the    chairs 

formed  of  leopards  or  of  two  running   lions.      From 


-Inlaid  chair,  Eleventh 
Dynast}-, 


CHAIRS. 


331 


the  tomb  of  the  parents  of  Queen  Tyi,  discovered  by 

Mr.  T.    Davis  in   1903,  come   three  charming  chairs. 

The  carved  lion's  feet  are 

very    similar    to    those    of 

the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  but 

the     chairs     are    provided 

with  arms.     The  back  and 

sides   of   one  chair    are  of 

solid  wood  elaborately 

sculptured  and  gilded.      In 

front    of  the    arms    are    two    Fig.  298.— Inlaid   stool,  Eleventh 

small  female  heads,  which  i^-isy. 

balance  the  lion's  feet  below.  The  sides  of  the  two 
other  chairs  are  carved  in  open- 
work designs. 

The  hardness  of  the  seats  was 
obviated  by  adding  a  stuffed 
cushion  richly  worked.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  tapestry  was 
known  to  the  Egyptians.  One 
of  the  reliefs  at  Beni  Hasan 
(fig.  300)  shows  that  it  was 
made  on  a  frame  similar  to  that 
used  by  the  weavers  of  Ekhmim 
up  to  the  present  day.  The 
loom  is  horizontal,  although  the 
Egyptian  lack  of  perspective 
gives  the  impression  of  its  being 
upright.  It  is  composed  of  two 
slender  cylinders,  placed  about  54  inches  apart,  and 
held  in  place  by  two  large  pegs  driven  into  the 
ground    about     54    inches    from    each    other.      The 


Fig.  299. — Royal  chair  of 
state,  wall  painting, 
Rameses  III. 


332 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


threads  of  the  warp  were  firmly  knotted,  and  then 
rolled  round  the  upper  cylinder  until  the  proper 
tensipn  was  attained — cross  sticks  placed  at  intervals 
facilitated  the  insertion  of  the  spindles  filled  with 
thread.  The  work  was  commenced  at  the  bottom, 
as  is  done  with  the  Gobelins  tapestries.  The  tissue 
was  beaten  down  and  equalised  by  means  of  a  coarse 
comb,  and  the  finished  work  was  wound -upon  the 
lower  cylinder  as  it   progressed.      In    this   way   both 


Fig.  300. — Women  weaving,  from  wall  scene  in  tomb  of 
Khnumhotep,  Beni  Hasan,  Twelfth  Dynasty.   ' 


tapestry  and  carpets  were  produced,  one  decorated 
with  figures,  the  other  with  geometrical  designs  and 
zigzags  and  chequers  (fig.  301),  but  at  the  same  time 
a  careful  examination  of  the  painted  scenes  has  con- 
vinced me  that  the  greater  number  of  instances  that 
ha\-e  been  thought  to  represent  tapestry  are  in  reality 
intended  for  leather,  cut  and  painted.  The  leather 
industry  flourished.  There  are  few  museums  that 
do  not  possess  at  least  one  pair  of  sandals,  or  of  those 
braces  provided  for  mummies  with  pink  and  yeIlo\y 


LEATHER    WORK. 


333 


ends  stamped  with  the  figure  of  a  god  or  of  a  Pharaoh, 
a  hieroglyph  text  or  a  rosette,  and  sometimes  with 
a  combination  of  all  four.  These  small  objects  are 
rarely  of  earlier  date  than  the  time  of  the  high- 
priests  of  Amon  or  of  the  earlier  Bubastites,  and  it 
is  to  this  period  that  we  must  assign  the  cut  leather 
canopy  of  the  Cairo  Museum.  The  catafalque  that 
was  placed  over  the  mummy  during  its  final  journey 
to  the  tomb  was  often  simplified,  and  consisted 
merely  of  a  covering  of  some  woven   material  or  of 


Pig.  301. --Man  weaving;  liangings  or  carpet,  tVom  Keni  Hasan, 
Twelfth  Dynasty. 


pliable  leather.  This  covering  sometimes  hung 
straight,  and  sometimes  it  was  caught  back,  allowing 
the  mummy  to  be  seen.  The  canopy  now  at  Cairo 
was  made  for  the  Princess  Isiemkheb,  daughter  of 
the  high-priest  Masahirti,  wife  of  the  high-priest 
Menkheperra,  and  mother  of  the  high-priest 
Pinotem  II.  The  central  portion,  which  formed  the 
top,  is  longer  than  it  is  broad,  and  is  divided  into 
three  sections  of  sky  blue  leather,  now  faded  to 
pearl  grey.     The    two    side    pieces  are  strewn    with 


334 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


yellow  stars  ;  on  the  central  piece  are  vultures 
guarding  the  deceased  with  outstretched  wings.  The 
curtains  that  fill  in  the  sides  are 
in  green  and  red  chequer  work. 
^  The  two  side  curtains  have  each 
:  a  border  at  the  top.  That  on  the 
5    right  consists  of  scarabs  with  out- 


m-^^^ 


m% 


that    attended 

obtained   is    very  remarkable 


I  stretched  wings  alternating  with 
:^    cartouches  of  Pinotem    II.,  and   a 

frieze  above  of  lance  heads.  On 
^  the  left  the  design  is  more  com- 
;  plicated  (fig.  302).  In  the  centre 
I  is  a  tuft  of  lotus  flanked  by  royal 
i  cartouches.  Beyond  on  either  side 
'^  are  gazelles  kneeling  on  baskets, 
i  then  two  bunches  of  papyrus,  and 
'  finally  two  scarabs  similar  to  those 
i  on  the  other  border  ;  the  frieze 
i  of  lance  heads  again  extends  the 
;  whole  length.  The  technique  of 
:  the  piece  is  very  curious.  The 
\  hieroglyphs  and  figures  were  cut 
^  out  of  large  pieces  of  leather.  Into 
;  the  gaps  thus  made  other  pieces 
\  of  leather  of  the  desired  'colours 
J  were  fitted,  and  the  whole  was 
'^  strengthened  and  made  good  by 
;    a  second  piece  of  leather  in  white 

or  pale  yellow  fastened  behind  it. 

Notwithstanding     the     difficulties 

such    a    piece    of    work,    the    result 

The    outline    of   the 


LEATHER  WORK. 


335 


gazelles,  the  scarabs,  and  the  flowers  is  as  clear  and 
c^raceful  as  if  it  had  been  drawn  with  a  brush  on  the 
wall  or  on  a  roll  of  papyrus,  the  choice  of  subjects 
is  happy,  and  the  colouring  is  both  bright  and 
harmonious.  The  craftsmen  who  planned  and  exe- 
cuted the  work  of  the  canopy  of  Isiemkheb  were 
highly  experienced   in   this   form    of   decoration   and 


ig.  J03.  —  JJaik  with  cut  leather  sail  ;   wall  jaiiUing  111 
tomb  of  l^ameses  III. 

the  class  of  design  required  for  it.  I  myself  have  no 
doubt  that  the  cushions  of  chairs  and  of  the  royal 
divans  and  the  sails  of  the  funerary  or  sacred  boats 
used  for  mummies  or  for  statues  of  deities  were 
frequently  made  of  this  leather  work.  There  is  a 
sail  covered  with  chequer  pattern  and  lateral  rows  of 
chevrons  on  one  of  the  boats  painted  in  the  tomb  of 
Rameses  III.  (fig.  303),  and  the  chequers  appear  to 
be  exactly  similar  to  those  on  the  canopy. 


336 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


The  vultures  and  fantastic  birds  on  another  sail 
painted  in  the  same  tomb  (fig.  304)  are  no  more 
strange  or  difficult  to  cut  in  leather  than  the  vultures 
or  gazelles  of  Isiemkheb. 

The  classical  writers  afford  abundant  testimony 
that  the  Egyptians  of  their  time  embroidered  with 
rare   skill.      The   two   votive   cuirasses   presented   by 


Fig.  304.  —  Bark  with  cut  leather  ;  wall  painting  in 
tomb  of  Rameses  III. 


Amasis,  one  to  the  Lacedemonians,  the  other  to  the 
temple  of  Athena  at  Lindos,  were  of  linen  embroidered 
with  figures  of  animals  in  gold  thread  and  purple, 
each  thread  of  which  consisted  of  365  separate  stran  Js. 
For  earlier  evidence  we  find  from  the  Theban  tombs 
that  the  garments  of  the  Pharaohs  had  borders  either 
woven  or  embroidered.  The  most  simple  of  these 
consisted    of  one  or   more   lines    of   a   darker    shade 


Tap£strv  and  brocade.s.  337 

parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  material.  Elsewhere 
\vc  find  palmettos,  or  rows  of  discs  and  points,  leaves, 
coils,  or  curves,  and  occasionally  figures  of  men 
dix'inities,  or  animals.  On  the  garment  of  one  of  the 
Deir  el  Bahari  princesses  I  found  a  royal  cartouche 
embroidered  in  pale  rose  colour.  In  the  tomb  of 
Thothmes  IV.,  discovered  by  Mr.  Davis  in  1903, 
were  found  some  pieces  of  linen  with  a  pattern  of 
flowers  and  hieroglyphs  worked  or  woven  in  most 
charming  colouring. 

The  Egyptians  of  the  best  periods  had  a  special 
esteem  for  materials  in  plain  colours,  especially  white. 
They  wove  them  with  remarkable  skill  on  a  loom 
identical  in  all  points  with  those  employed  for 
tapestry.  The  pieces  of  linen  in  which  the  hands  and 
arms  of  Thothmes  III.  were  wrapped  are  as  delicate 
as  the  finest  India  muslin,  and  they  deserved  the 
name  of  woven  air  fully  as  much  as  did  the  gauzes  of 
Cos  :  this  is  of  course  purely  a  matter  of  handicrafts 
into  which  art  docs  not  enter.  The  use  of  embroidery 
and  tapestry  only  became  general  in  Egypt  towards 
the  close  of  the  Persian  domination,  and  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Greek  period.  Alexandria  was 
partially  populated  by  prosperous  colonies  of  Phceni- 
cians,  Syrians,  and  Jews,  who  brought  their  native 
industries  with  them.  Ptolemy  attributes  to  the 
Alexandrians  the  invention  of  weaving  with  a  variety 
of  threads  and  producing  the  material  now  called 
brocade  (polymita),  and  in  the  time  of  the  earlier 
Caesars  it  was  a  recognised  fact  that  "  the  needle  of 
Babylon  was  henceforth  surpassed  by  the  comb  of 
the  Nile."  The  materials  thus  made  were  not  like 
22 


338  THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

the  ancient  Egyptian  tapestries,  decorated  almost 
exclusively  with  geometric  designs,  but,  as  the  classical 
writers  state,  plants,  animals,  and  even  men  w^ere 
represented.  Nothing  now  remains  of  the  master- 
pieces which  filled  the  palace  of  the  Ptolemies,  but 
fragments  are  frequently  found  that  can  be  safely 
attributed  to  the  later  Roman  period,  such  as  the 
child  with  the  goose  described  by  Wilkinson,  or  the 
marine  divinities  purchased  by  me  at  Koptos.  The 
numerous  fragments  of  shrouds  with  elaborate  patterns 
woven  on  the  borders  discovered  in  the  Fayum  and 
near  Ekhmim  are  almost  all  of  them  from  Coptic 
burials,  and  they  belong  rather  to  Byzantine  than  to 
Egyptian  art. 

3.  —METAL. 

Metals  were  divided  by  the  Egyptians  into  two 
groups,  separated  from  each  other  in  Egyptian  writings 
by  the  mention  of  various  kinds  of  precious  stones 
such  as  lapis  lazuli  or  malachite.  The  noble  metals 
were  gold,  electrum,  and  silver  ;  the  base  metals  were 
copper,  iron,  and  lead,  to  which  tin  was  added  later. 

Iron  was  known  as  early  as  the  predynastic  period  ; 
some  iron  beads  of  that  time  proved  on  analysis  to 
be  of  wrought  iron.  It  is  very  rarely  found,  however, 
during  the  early  dynasties,  and  in  later  times  it  was 
reserved  for  w^eapons  of  war,  for  tools  intended  for 
hard  w^ork  such  as  chisels,  sculptors'  and  masons' 
chisels,  for  axeheads  and  saws  and  the  blades  of 
adzes  and  knives.  Lead  was  rarely  used.  It  was 
occasionally  employed  as  an  inlay  for  the  doors  of 
temples,  for  coffers  and  other  furniture,   and   it  was 


BRONZE.  339 

cast  for  small  figures  of  divinities  more  especially  of 
Osiris  and  Anubis.  From  the  earliest  prehistoric 
graves  copper  implements  are  found  in  small  quanti- 
ties, and  its  use  rapidly  increased  and  was  almost 
universal  up  to  the  Sixth  Dynasty,  when  it  was 
gradually  superseded  by  bronze.  The  vessels  made 
of  it  are  of  hammered  work  and  shaped  on  a  core 
or  mould.  Accessories,  such  as  spouts,  were  cast 
separately,  and  welded  on  with  the  help  of  a  blowpipe. 
Rivets  were  also  used  to  fasten  one  part  of  a  metal 
vase  to  another.  B)'  the  Sixth  Dynasty  bronze  had 
come  into  use  ;  casting  also  was  far  more  freely 
employed. 

It  has  often  been  affirmed  that  the  Egyptians 
succeeded  in  tempering  bronze  so  that  it  became 
as  hard  as  iron  or  steel,  and  it  is  certainly  the  case 
that  they  were  able  to  produce  bronze  of  very 
different  qualities  by  varying  the  constituents  and 
their  relative  proportions.  The  greater  number  of 
the  specimens  examined  up  to  the  present  contain 
copper  and  tin  in  the  same  proportions  that  are  used 
to-day  in  the  manufacture  of  bronze.  The  bronze 
analysed  by  Vauquelin  in  1825  contained  84  per 
cent,  of  copper.  14  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  i  per  cent,  of 
iron  and  of  other  substances.  A  chisel  brought  to 
Europe  by  Wilkinson  had  only  5-9  per  cent,  of  tin, 
01  of  iron,  and  94  of  copper.  Fragments  of  statuettes 
and  mirrors  analysed  more  recently  have  rendered  a 
sensible  quantity  of  gold  or  silver  and  correspond 
with  the  bronzes  of  Corinth.  Others  have  the  colour 
and  composition  of  brass.  Many  of  the  finest  have  a 
marvellous  power  of  resisting  the  effects  of  clamp,  and 


340 


TH£   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


Fig.  305-- 
Bronze  jug. 


oxidi>e  with  difficult)'.  While  still  hot  they  were 
rubbed  over  with  a  resinous  varnish  which  filled  up 
the  pores,  and  formed  an  unalterable  patina.  Each 
kind  had  its  special  use.  The  ordinary  bronze  was 
employed  for  weapons,  and  for  the  common  amulets  ; 
alloys  similar  to  brass  were  used  for 
household  utensils,  the  gold  or  silver 
bronzes  for  mirrors,  valuable  weapons, 
and  fine  statuettes.  None  of  the  tomb 
paintings  that  I  have  examined  repre- 
sent the  manufacture  of  bronze,  but 
that  omission  is  supplied  by  an  ex- 
amination of  the  objects  themselves. 
Tools,  weapons,  rings,  and  cheap  vases  were  partly 
hammered,  partly  cast  whole  in  moulds  of  hard  clay, 
or  stone.  Everything  in  the  nature  of  a  work  of  art 
was  cast  in  one  or  more  pieces  according  to  circum- 
stances, and  the  pieces  were  then  adjusted,  soldered 
together,  and  worked  over  with  the 
burin.  The  method  most  generally  in 
use  was  casting  by  means  of  a  core. 
The  core  was  made  of  sand  or  earth 
mixed  with  pounded  charcoal,  roughly 
formed  in  the  same  shape  as  the  mould.  Fig. 306.— Same 
This  was  placed  inside  the  mould,  and     J"&  seen  from 

'■  ^         ,  above. 

the  metal  with  which  it  was  coated  was 

often  so  thin  that  it  would  have  yielded  to  the  slightest 

pressure  if  the  core  had  not  been  left  inside  it. 

The  greater  number  of  domestic  utensils  and  small 
household  implements  were  usually  made  of  copper 
or  bronze  ;  they  are  to  be  found  by  thousands  in  our 
museums.       In    Egypt   trade    was    not    incompatible 


BRONZES.  341 

with  art,  and  the  cf)ppcrsmith  endeavoured  to  give 
beauty  of  form  and  of  ornament  even  to  the  humblest 
of  his  productions.  The  stockpot  in  which  the  cook 
of  Rameses  III.  patiently  allowed  his  most  elaborate 
dishes  to  simmer  is  provided  with  lion's  feet.  Here 
is  a  pitcher  that  does  not  appear  to  differ  in 
any  way  from  the  modern  pitcher  (fig.  305), 
but  let  us  examine  it  more  closely.  The 
handle  is  a  papyrus  flower,  and  the  petals 
drooping  on  their  stem  rest  on  the  rim  of  the 
jug  (fig.  306).  The  handle  of  a  knife  or  spoon 
is  almost  always  the  curved  neck  of  a  duck  or 
a  goose.  The  bowl  of  the  spoon  may  be  an 
animal,  such  as  a  gazelle  bound  ready  for 
sacrifice  (fig.  307),  and  on  the  handle  of  a 
sabre  a  small  jackal  is  seated.  The  upper  half 
of  a  pair  of  scissors  at  Cairo  is  formed  of  an 
Asiatic  captive,  with  arms  bound  behind  his 
back.  A  mirror  is  composed  of  a  leaf,  the 
stalk  forming  the  handle.  One 
box  for  perfumes  is  a  fish,  another 
is  a  bird,  and  a  third  is  a  grotesque 
deity.  Vases  for  holy  water 
carried  by  priests  and  priestesses 
to  sprinkle  the  faithful,  or  the 
ground  over  which  processions  Fig.  soy.-Lamp,  Gr^co- 
were     about    to     pass,     merit     a  Roman  period, 

special  place  of  honour  among  connoisseurs.  The)' 
are  pointed  or  ovoid  at  the  lower  end,  and 
decorated  with  designs  in  outline  or  relief.  Some- 
times there  are  figures  of  deities,  each  enclosed  in 
a    separate    framework,    and    sometimes    scenes    of 


342 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


^m 

"-•^i- 


prayer  or    of   lustration,  and    the   work   is   generally 

extremely  good. 

Both  copper  and  bronze  were  early  employed  for 
..'  r;,?>v  statuary.     The  statue  of 

Pepi  I.  discovered  by 
Ouibell  at  Kom  el 
Ahmar  has  already  been 
mentioned.  The  tech- 
nique is  not  the  least 
interesting  thing  about 
it.  Bust,  legs,  and  arms 
were  hammered  out  and 
fitted  together  most 
accurately  ;  the  hands, 
face,  and  feet  were  cast. 
We  possess  some  pieces 
of  the  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  Dynasties  ; 
the  chased  lion's  head 
found  with  the  jewels 
and  weapons  of  Queen 
Aahhotep,  the  Harpo- 
crates  of  Cairo  that 
bears  the  names  of 
Karnes  and  of  Aahmes  I., 
and  several  figures  of 
Amon  in  the  same 
museum,  said  to  come 
from  Aledinet  Habu  and 


Fig   308. — Bronze  statuette  of  the 
lady  Takushet. 


Sheikh  Abd  el  Gurneh,  are  of  that  period.  The  most 
important  pieces  belong  to  the  Twenty-second  or 
Twenty-sixth   Dynasty,    while    many   are    no    earlier 


BRONZES. 


i43 


than  the  beginning  of  the  Ptolemaic  period.  A 
fragment  from  Tanis  in  the  possession  of  Count 
Stroganeff  formed  part  of  a  statue  of  King  Petukhanu 
of  the  Twenty-first  Dynasty.  It  must  have  been  at 
least  two-thirds  of  life- 
size,  and  is  one  of  the 
largest  pieces  we  possess. 
The  portrait  statuette  of 
the  lady  Takiishet  given 
by  M.  Demetrio  to  the 
museum  at  Athens,  the 
four  figures  at  the 
Louvre,  and  the  kneel- 
ing genius  at  Cairo  came 
originally  from  Bubastis, 
and  probably  date  from 
the  years  that  imme- 
diately preceded  the 
accession  of  Psamme- 
tichus  I.  The  lady 
Takushet  is  standing, 
one  foot  advanced,  the 
right  arm  pendent,  the 
left  arm  folded  below 
the  breast  (fig.  308).  She 
wears  a  short  robe  em- 
broidered with  religious 
subjects,  and  she  has  bracelets  on  her  arms  and  wrists. 
Her  head  is  covered  with  a  wig  of  short  curls  arranged 
in  regular  rows.  The  details  of  the  dress  and  jewels 
are  engraved  in  outline  on  the  bronze  inlaid  with  a 
line  of  silver  wire.     The  face  is  a  portrait  and  indicates 


Bronze, "statuette  of 'Horus. 


344 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


a  woman  of  mature  aL;e,  while  the  body,  following  the 
traditions  of  the  Egyptian  school,  is  that  of  a  girl, 
upright,  firm,  and  supple.  There  is  a  large  admixture 
of  gold  in  the  copper,  and  the  soft  lustre  harmonises 
in  the  happiest  manner  with  the  rich  ornamentation 
of  the  embroidery.  The  kneeling 
genius  of  Cairo,  on  the  contrary, 
produces  a  rough  and  harsh  effect. 
He  is  adoring  the  rising  sun  as 
was  the  bounden  duty  of  the  genii 
of  Heliopolis;  he  is  hawk-headed, 
his  right  arm  is  sharply  raised, 
the  left  is  folded  on  his  breast. 
The  whole  style  is  dry  and  the 
impression  of  harshness  is  in- 
creased by  the  granulated  surface 
of  the  skin,  but  the  movement  is 
correct  and  energetic,  and  the 
bird's  head  is  adjusted  to  the 
human  body  with  consummate 
skill. 

The  same  merits  and  demerits 
distinguish  the  Horus  of  the 
Louvre  (fig.  309).  Standing  with 
outstretched  arms,  he  is  carefully 
pouring  the  contents  of  a  libation 
Both  vase  and  king  have  now 
disappeared.  The  other  three  figures  are  far  better 
finished,  especially  one  that  bears  the  name  of  Mosu 
inscribed  on  the  breast  (fig.  310).  Like  Horus,  he 
is  standing  with  the  left  leg  advanced,  the  left  arm 
pendent,  while  the  right  hand  once  held  the  staff  of 


Fig.  310.— Bronze  sta- 
tuette of  Mosu. 


vase  over   a    king, 


BRONZES.  345 

office.  He  is  girdled  with  a  striped  waist-cloth, 
the  end  of  which  falls  squarely  in  front.  On  the 
head  is  a  wig  formed  of  rows  of  small  fine  curls. 
The  ear  is  large  and  round,  the  well-opened  eyes 
were  once  inlaid  with  silver,  which  has  been  stolen 
by  some  native.  The  features  bear  a  marked  ex- 
pression of  pride  and  determination. 

Of  the  numberless  statuettes  of  Osiris,  Isis, 
Ncphth}'s,  Horus,  and  Nefertum  that  have  been 
recovered  from  Saqqara,  Bubastis,  and  other  cities  of 
the  Delta,  there  is  little  to  be  said.  Many,  no  doubt, 
arc  charming  subjects  for  a  glass  case.  The  casting 
is  faultless,  and  they  are  worked  with  great  delicacy, 
but  most  of  them  are  merely  articles  of  commerce, 
made  on  the  same  pattern,  and  possibly  cast  in  the 
same  moulds,  for  centuries,  for  the  edification  of 
pilgrims  and  devotees.  They  are  feeble  and  common- 
place, and  can  no  more  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  than  the  figures  or  coloured  pictures  of  saints 
sold  by  hundreds  in  Europe  to-day.  Figures  of  animals, 
rams,  sphinxes,  and  more  especially  of  lions,  on  the 
contrary,  maintained  their  individuality.  The  Egyp- 
tians had  a  special  predilection  for  the  feline  tribe  ; 
they  represented  the  lion  in  all  possible  attitudes, 
chasing  the  antelope,  attacking  the  huntsman, 
wounded  and  biting  the  w^ound,  or  in  calm,  dis- 
dainful repose.  No  nation  has  represented  him  with 
so  intimate  a  knowledge  of  his  habits,  nor  with  such 
intensity  of  life.  Several  of  the  divinities,  Shu, 
Anhuri,  Bast,  Sekhet,  Tefnut,  were  of  cat  or  lion 
form,  and  as  their  cult  was  specially  popular  in  the 
Delta,    scarcely    a    year    passes    without    discoveries 


346 


THE    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS. 


being  made  at  Bubastis,  Tanis,  Mendes,  or  some 
other  less  well-known  town  of  large  deposits  of 
thousands  of  figures  of  these  animals,  or  of  human 
figures  with  lions'  or  cats'  heads.  Our  museums  are 
crowded  with  the  cats  of  Bubastis  or  the  lions  of 
Tell  es  Saba. 

The  Horbeit  lions  may  be  reckoned  among  the 
masterpieces  of  Egyptian  statuary.  The  naine  of 
Apries  is  inscribed  on  the  largest  of  them  (fig.   311). 


Fig.  311.— Bronze  lion  from  Horbeit,  Saite  period. 

It  formed  part  of  the  fastening  of  a  temple  door,  and 
the  back  of  the  object  was  fixed  with  a  wooden  beam. 
The  animal  is  caught  in  a  trap,  or  is  l\'ing  in  a  cage 
from  which  its  head  and  forepaws  protrude.  The 
lines  of  the  body  are  simple  and  full  of  power,  and 
the  expression  of  the  face  shows  calm  strength.  In 
breadth  of  treatment  and  majestic  demeanour  it 
almost  rivals  the  fine  limestone  lions  of  Amen- 
hotep  III. 

The   idea   of  overlaying  stone   or  wood  with  gold 


USE   OF    THE   PRECIOUS    METALS.  34/ 

was  familiar  in  Kgypt  before  the  time  of  Menes. 
Many  of  the  earHest  stone  vases  have  handles  and 
rim  covered  with  gold-leaf,  and  limestone  beads  are 
also  overlaid  with  it.  The  gold  is  often  mixed  with 
silver.  When  amalgamated  to  the  extent  of  20  per 
cent,  it  changes  its  name,  and  is  called  electrum. 
Electrum  lias  a  fine  pale  yellow  colour,  which 
becomes  paler  as  the  proportion  of  silver  is  in- 
creased, and  at  60  per  cent,  it  is  almost  white.  Silver 
was  brought  from  x^sia  in  rings,  sheets,  and  blocks 
of  standard  weight.  Gold  was  also  brought  from 
Syria  in  rings  and  blocks,  and  from  the  Sudan  and 
from  the  Libyan  Desert  to  the 
west  of  the  Red  Sea  in  nuggets 
and  gold-dust.  The  processes 
of  refining  and  smelting  gold 
are  represented  on  monuments 
of  the    early   dynasties.     On    a     „.  ^  , , 

^  rig.  ^12. — Gold  worker. 

bas-relief  at  Saqqara  there  is  a 
record  of  the  amount  of  gold  entrusted  to  a  craftsman 
for  some  piece  of  work,  on  another  at  Thebes  the 
goldsmith  is  seated  in  front  of  his  crucible  holding 
his  blowpipe  to  his  lips  to  fan  the  flame,  while  his 
right  hand  grasps  the  pincers  ready  to  seize  the 
ingot  (fig.   312). 

The  P2gyptians  struck  neither  coins  nor  medals,  but 
with  this  exception  they  made  the  same  use  that  we 
do  of  the  precious  metals.  We  gild  the  crosses  and 
cupolas  of  our  churches  ;  they  covered  the  doors  of 
the  temples  with  gold,  as  well  as  the  lower  part  of 
the  walls,  certain  bas-reliefs,  pyramidions  of  obelisks, 
and  even  the  obelisks  themselves.     The   obelisks  of 


34^  THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

Queen  Hatshcpsut  at  Karnak  were  thickly  coated 
with  electrum.  "  They  were  behekl  from  the  two 
banks  of  the  Nile  ;  both  the  lands  of  Egypt  were 
illuminated  by  the  splendour  of  their  reflection 
when  the  sun  rose  between  them  as  it  rises  on  the 
horizon  of  heaven." 

The  sheets  of  gold  employed  for  these  obelisks 
were  forged  on  an  anvil  with  a  hammer,  but  for 
smaller  objects  sinall  pellets  were  beaten  flat  between 
two  pieces  of  parchment.  The  Louvre  possesses  a 
perfect  goldsmith's  book,  and  the  gold-leaf  it  contains 
is  as  fine  as  that  used  in  Germany  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  was  applied  to  bronze  by  means  of  an 
ammoniacal  mordant. 

A  wooden  statuette  that  had  to  be  gilded  was  first 
covered  with  a  fine  linen  material  or  a  thin  coating 
of  stucco,  and  then  overlaid  with  gold  or  silver. 
Statues  of  Thoth,Horus,  and  Nefertum  in  gilded  wood 
existed  as  early  as  the  time  of  Khufu.  The  temple  of 
Isis,  "  Mistress  of  the  Pyramid,"  contained  a  dozen  of 
these,  and  this  chapel  was  by  no  means  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  Memphite  necropolis.  The  Theban 
temples  seem  to  have  possessed  some  hundreds,  at 
any  rate  under  the  conquering  dynasties  of  the  New 
Kingdom,  and  the  Ptolemaic  temples  were  no  less 
well  provided. 

But  bronze  or  gilded  wood  did  not  always  content 
the  Egyptian  deities.  They  demanded  solid  gold, 
and  it  was  unhesitatingly  lavished  upon  them.  The 
sovereigns  both  of  the  Ancient  and  the  Middle  King- 
doms dedicated  statues  cast  or  worked  in  the  precious 
metals,  while   the   Pharaohs   of  the    Eierhteenth  and 


GOLD   AND   SILVER    STATUES.  ^49 

Nineteenth  Dynasties,  who  could  draw  almost  at  will 
on  the  treasures  of  Asia,  surpassed  all  that  had  been 
done  in  this  respect  by  their  predecessors.  Even 
during-  the  decadent  period  we  find  feudal  lords 
continuing  the  tradition  of  the  past,  and  like 
Mentuemhat,  prince  of  Thebes,  they  replaced  the 
images  of  gold  or  silver  carried  off  from  Karnak  by 
the  generals  of  Ashurbanipal  during  the  Assyrian 
invasions.  The  amount  of  precious  metal  thus 
devoted  to  the  service  of  the  supreme  god  must  have 
been  considerable.  Numbers  of  small  figures  mea- 
sured only  an  inch  or  two  in  height  ;  others  measured 
three  or  more  cubits.  Some  were  made  entirely 
either  of  silver  or  gold,  others  are  partly  gold,  partly 
silver;  others,  again,  rival  the  Greek  chrys-elephantine 
statuary,  where  the  gold  is  combined  with  carved 
ivory,  ebony,  and  precious  stones.  Bas-reliefs  at 
Karnak,  Medinet  Habu,  at  Denderah  and  elsewhere, 
represent  these  statues,  and  show  us  wdiat  they  were 
like,  and  so  does  the  statuary  in  limestone  or  wood  ; 
the  material  may  be  different,  but  the  style  is  the 
same.  There  is  nothing  more  perishable  than  such 
work — the  value  of  the  materials  foredooms  it  to 
destruction.  All  that  survived  the  civil  wars,  foreign 
invasion,  and  the  rapacity  of  the  Pharaohs  and 
Roman  governors,  fell  a  prey  to  the  iconoclasm  of 
the  Christians.  A  few  small  figures  in  guise  of 
amulets  concealed  in  the  mummies,  a  few  statuettes 
once  adored  as  domestic  Lares,  found  among  the 
ruins  of  houses,  and  some  ex-votos  lost  in  obscure 
corners  of  a  temple,  are  all  that  have  come  to  us  of 
figures  of  divinities.     An   elcctrum  statue  of  a  youth 


350 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


of  the  time  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  was  found  in 
a  private  tomb  close  to  the  valley  temple  of 
Hatshepsut  at  Deir  el    Bahari.      It  is  5|  inches  high. 

The  figure  is  nude. 
In  one  hand  the 
boy  clasps  a  lotus 
bud  with  its  long 
stem.  The  work 
is  not  highl\' 
finished,  but  the 
modelling  is  deli- 
cate and  subtle.* 

This  is  not  a  re- 
ligious piece.     The 
^'""  i'^lT^''^?  V!^  of  Tahuti,  figures  of  Ptah  and 

Eighteenth  Dynast}'.  ^ 

Amon,  belonging 
to  Queen  xAahhotep,  another  Amon  at  Cairo,  and  the 
silver  vulture  from  Medinet  Habu,  are  so  far  the  only 
other  pieces  that  can  with  certainty  be  attributed  to 
the  New  Kingdom.  The  re- 
mainder belong  to  the  Saitic 
and  rtolemaic  periods,  and  are 
only  distinguished  b\'  perfection 
of  workmanship. 

The  vessels  of  the  temples 
and  palaces  have  varied  little 
better  than  the  statuary.     Early  ^'""^IM* 

in    the    nineteenth    century    the    Fig.  314.— Silver  vase  of 
Louvre      acquired      some     flat-  rhmms. 

bottomed  bowls  or  cups  that  had  been  presented  by 
Thothmes   III.  to  Tahuti,  one  of  his  generals,  as  a 

Earl  of  Carnarvon,  F/ve  Years'  Explorations  at  Thebes,  1912. 


GOLD   AND   SILVER   tLATE. 


35t 


315. — Silver  vase  of 
Thnniis, 


reward  for  valour.  The  silver  cup  is  much  mutilated  ; 
the  gold  cup  is  perfect,  and  of  a  very  charming 
design  (fig.  313).  On  the  lateral  side  is  a  hieroglyph 
inscription  ;  on  the  base  a  rosette  is  engraved,  round 
which  six  fish  arc  swimming  ;  a  border  of  lotus 
flowers  united  by  a  curved  line 
surrounds  the  central  design. 
The  five  vases  of  Thmuis,  in 
the  Cairo  Museum,  are  of  silver. 
They  formed  part  of  the  temple 
property,  and  were  concealed  in 
a  hiding-place  from  which  they 
have  only  recently  been  removed. 
They  date  from  the  end  of  the 
Saitic  age  or  the  beginning  of  the  Ptolemaic  period, 
but  the  workmanship  is  purely  Egyptian.  Of  one, 
only  the  cover  remains,  with  a  handle  consisting  of 
two  flowers  on  one  stem.    The  others  are  perfect,  and 

decorated  in  repousse  work 
with  lotus  lilies  in  bud  and 
blossom  (fig.  314).  The 
form  is  simple  and  graceful, 
the  ornamentation  sober 
and  delicate,  the  relief  low. 
One, however,  is  surrounded 
by  a  row  of  ovoid  bosses 
(fig.  3 1 5),  with  well-marked 
projections  that  somewhat  alter  the  outline  of  the  bowl. 
In  1906  the  Cairo  Museum  was  enriched  by  a  large 
number  of  gold  and  silver  vessels,  discovered  with 
other  treasures  at  Zagazig  and  elsewhere.  Some  of 
them  date   from    the   Nineteenth   Dynasty,  and  bear 


Fig.  316.— Ornamental  vase  in 
precious  metal,  from  wall 
painting-,  Twentieth  Dynasty. 


3S2 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


nii: 


metal,       wall 
Eighteenth  I)}- 


witness  to  the  great  skill   of  the  gold- workers  of  that 

time.     There  are  numerous  flat  silver  cups,  similar  in 

form  to  that  of  General  Tahiiti,  but  far  more  elabo- 
rately decorated  with  repousse 
work  and  with  the  point.  Two 
gold  jugs  belonged  to  Queen 
Taiisert.  One  of  these  is  covered 
all  over  the  body  with  a  series 
of  bosses  in  repousse  work  ; 
round  the  neck  four  bands  of 
floral  designs  are  engraved,  and 
immediatel}'  below  the   rim  is 

Fig.317.— Craterofprecious  a  figure  of  an  OX,  with  a  hole 

na^tv"  '"^'   through  which  is  passed  a  ring 

for  suspension.     There  is  also 

a  silver  jug,  with  a  gold   handle  in  form  of  a  goat. 

The   animal   is   straining  upwards,   and  its   lips   rest 

on  the  rim  of  the  jug.     The  lower  part  of  the  jug  is 

covered  with  rows  of  flowers 

in  repousse  \\o\V.^    The  whole 

forms  a  real  masterpiece. 
The  Pharaohs  had  not  our 

commercial      resources,     and 

could   not   circulate  the   gold 

and  silver  extorted  from  con- 
quered nations  in  the  form  of 

coin.      After    deducting    the 

share    devoted     to    the    gods 

they  had    no    alternative   but 

to  melt  the  remainder  into  ingots  or  to  convert  their 

share  of  the  booty  into  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  or 

*  G.  Maspero,  Guide  to  the  Cairo  Museum^  1910,  pp.  401  ct  srr/. 


nijl     : 


Fig.  318. — Hydria  of  precious 
metal,  wall  painting,  Eigh- 
teenth Dynasty. 


GOLD   AND   SILVER    WORK 


353 


Fig.  319. —  En- 
amelled cruet, 
wall  painting, 
Eight  e  e  n  t  h 
Dynasty. 


into  jewellery.     This  was  the  case  also  with  private 

persons,  and  from  the  time  of  Aahmes   I.  during  at 

least  six  or  eight  centuries   the   taste 

for  worked  silver  was  indulged   to  an 

extravagant  extent.    All  houses  of  any 

consequence  contained  not  only  what 

was    required    for    the    service    of   the 

table,  dishes,  ewers,  cups,  goblets,  and 

baskets   on   which  fantastic    figures  of 

animals  w^ere  engraved  and  embossed 

(fig.  316),  but  they  were  also  provided 

with  large  vases  intended  to  be  filled 

with    flowers    and    displayed    on    gala 

days  before  invited  guests.     We  have 

seen    from   the  specimens  we   possess    that   some   of 

them  were  of  extraordinary  richness,  and  also  that 
some  at  least  of  the  vases  depicted  on 
the  monuments  were  copied  from  those 
in  actual  use,  and  we  can  turn  to  the 
wall  paintings  to  show  us  the  variety 
of  forms  in  which  they  were  fashioned. 
Here  for  instance  is  a  crater  with 
handles  formed  of  two  papyrus  buds, 
and  the  foot  of  two  full-blown  blossoms; 
two  Asiatics  in  sumptuous  garments 
appear  to  be  lifting  it  by  exerting  their 
full  strength  (fig.  317).  Or  again  we 
find  a  kind  of  elongated  hydria  with  a 
cover  in  the  form  of  a  lotus  flanked  by 

the  heads  of  two  gazelles  (fig.  318)  ;  two  horses'  heads, 

bridled  and  caparisoned,  are  placed  back  to  back  at 

the  foot.  The  body  of  the  vase  is  divided  into 
23 


Fig.  320.  —  En- 
amelled cruet, 
wall  painting, 
Eightee  n  t  h 
Dynasty. 


354 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


centrepiece 


Amen- 


hotep    III.,    wall  painting,    Eighteenth 
Dj-nasty. 


horizontal  zones  of  which  the  centre  one  represents 
a  marsh,  with  an  antelope  careerin<5  at  full  speed. 
Two  enamelled  cruets  are  surmounted,  one  with  the 
plumed  head  of  an  eagle  (fig.  319),   the  other   with 

the  head  of  the 
god  Bes  between 
two  serpents  (fig. 
320).  A  gold  cen- 
trepiece (fig.  321) 
sent  to  Amen- 
hotep  III.  by  a 
viceroy  of  Ethiopia 
represents  one  of 
the  most  usual  scenes  of  Egyptian  conquest.  A  group 
of  men  and  apes  are  gathering  fruit  in  a  grove  of 
dom-palms,  two  natives  in  striped  waist-cloths,  with 
a  long  feather  stuck  in  their  hair,  are  each  of  them 
leading  a  tame  giraffe  on  a  leash. 
Other  men  of  the  same  tribe  are 
kneeling  on  the  ground  and  beg- 
ging for  mercy  from  the  Egyptian 
soldiery,  while  negro  prisoners 
laid  flat  on  the  ground  are  with 
difficulty  raising  their  heads  and 
shoulders.  A  cup  with  a  shallow 
base  and  a  high  conical  cover 
stands  up  among  the  trees. 
Evidently  the  workmen  who  carried  out  this  design 
studied  richness  and  effectiveness  more  than  grace 
and  beauty  of  design.  It  mattered  little  to  them 
that  the  whole  effect  was  heavy  or  in  bad  taste  if 
only  they  could  display  their  skill  and  the  amount  of 


Fig.  322. — Crater  of 
precious  metal,  wall 
painting.  Eighteenth 
Dynast}-. 


GOLD   AND   SILVER    VASES. 


355 


precious  metal  they  had  at  their  disposal.  Other 
centrepieces  of  the  same  type  are  represented  among 
the  offerings  made  to  Rameses  II.  at  Abu  Simbel. 
Here  buffaloes  instead  of  giraffes  arc  wandering  loose 
among  the  palms.  These  were 
costly  toys  similar  to  those  col- 
lected by  the  Byzantine  emperors 
of  the  ninth  century  in  their 
palace  at  Magnaura,  and  which 
they  exhibited  on  gala  days  to  Fig.  323.— Crater  of  pre- 
impress    strangers.      When    the      cious  metal,  wall  paint- 

^  °  ing,Lighteenth  Dynasty. 

Pharaoh  returned  victorious  from 

his  distant    campaigns   these  vases   were    carried   in 

state    in    his    triumphal    processions,    of    which    his 

unfortunate  captives  also  formed  part. 

Vases  for  ordinary  use  were  of  simpler  form  and 

less  loaded   with   unnecessary   ornament.      The    two 

leopards  that  serve  as  handles  to  a  crater  of  the  time 
of  Thothmes  III.  (fig.  322)  are 
not  well  proportioned  and  do 
not  harmonise  with  the  form  of 
the  crater.  They  are  far  from 
equal  to  the  goat  on  the  jug  of 

Fig.   324.— Ewer  of  pre-  Tausert.      The    crater,  however 
cious  metal,  wall  paint-  /fig.    323),    and    ewer   (fig.   324) 

ing,  Eighteenth  Dynasty.   ^    t'      ^    >^^'  V    &      J    t/ 

belonging  to  the  same  service 
are  very  happily  conceived  and  have  much  beauty 
of  form. 

These  gold  and  silver  vases,  engraved,  hammered, 
and  repousse^  and  some  of  them  bearing  battle  or 
sporting  scenes  arranged  in  zones  were  imitated  in 
Phoenicia,   and    when    exported    into    Asia    Minor, 


356  THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

Greece,  and  ltal\%  introduced  into  those  countries 
many  other  shapes  and  designs  of  Egyptian  gold  and 
silver  work.  The  passion  for  precious  metals  went 
so  far  under  the  Ramessides  that  they  were  not 
content  to  employ  them  for  the  service  of  the  table. 
Both  Rameses  II.  and  Rameses  III.  had  thrones 
of  gold,  not  merely  overlaid,  but  of  solid  gold  en- 
crusted with  precious  stones.  These  were  far  too 
costly  to  last,  and  they  disappeared  on  the  first 
opportunity.  Their  artistic  importance  did  not 
equal  their  intrinsic  value,  and  we  need  not  mourn 
their  loss. 

All  orientals,  whether  men  or  women,  are  great 
lovers  of  jewellery,  and  the  Egyptians  were  no  excep- 
tion to  the  rule.  Not  content  with  wearing  it  in 
profusion  during  their  lifetime,  they  also  loaded  the 
arms,  fingers,  neck,  ears,  forehead,  and  ankles  of  their 
dead  with  ornaments.  The  quantity  they  deposited 
in  the  tombs  was  so  great  that  even  now,  after  thirty 
centuries  of  active  search,  mummies  are  still  found 
from  time  to  time  that  may  be  said  to  be  sheathed 
in  gold.  Many  of  these  gold  ornaments  were  merely 
made  for  show  on  the  day  of  the  funeral,  and  the 
workmanship  bears  witness  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  intended.  But  in  many  cases  the  favourite 
jewellery  of  the  deceased  was  buried  with  them  and 
then  the  careful  workmanship  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired.  As  is  only  natural,  a  great  number  of  rings 
and  chains  have  survived  to  our  time  ;  the  ring  was 
not  merely  an  ornament  as  it  is  with  us,  but  an 
object  of  primary  necessity  ;  it  was  used  for  official 
sealing,  and  the  seal  held  good  in  law.     Thus  every 


JEWELLERY.  357 

Egyptian  had  his  own  ring  that  he  carried  with  him 
in  case  of  need.  The  ring  of  the  poor  man  was 
merely  of  copper  or  silver,  the  ring  of  the  rich  was 
more  or  less  elaborately  chased  and  ornamented  with 
reliefs.  The  movable  bezel  turned  on  a  pivot,  and 
was  frequently  set  with  an  engraved  stone  bearing 
a  device  or  emblem  chosen  by  the  owner,  such  as  a 
scorpion  (fig.  325),  a  lion,  a  sparrow-hawk,  or  a 
cynocephalous  ape.  For  the  Egyptian  woman  the 
chain  was  of  as  great  importance  as  was  the  ring  for 
her  husband  ;  it  was  her  chief  ornament.  I  have  seen 
one  in  silver  that  measured  63  inches  in  length,  while 
others  are  barely  2  or  2j-  inches  long. 
They  are  made  in  every  variety  of 
pattern,  in  double  or  treble  rows,  with 
large  or  small  links,  solid  and  heavy, 
or  as  light  and  flexible  as  the  finest  pjg  325.— 
Venetian   chain.      The   poorest  peasant       Signet-ring 

11  111-  with  bezel. 

could  possess  one  as  well  as  the  ladies 
of  the  royal  harem,  but  the  woman  must  indeed 
have  been  poor  whose  dowry  did  not  include  some- 
thing more.  No  list  could  give  an  adequate  idea 
of  the  amount  and  variety  of  jewellery  known  to 
us.  Berlin  possesses  the  jewellery  of  an  Ethiopian 
Candace,  and  the  Louvre  has  that  of  Prince  Psar,  but 
the  jewel  room  at  Cairo  possesses  a  wealth  of  gold, 
silver,  and  enamelled  work  which  forms  a  complete 
history  of  Egyptian  jewellery. 

There  are  the  four  bracelets  found  on  a  piece  of  an 
arm  of  a  wornan  in  the  tomb  of  King  Zer,  of  the 
beginning  of  the  First  Dynasty,  at  Abydos.  The 
bracelets  are  made  of  pure  soft  gold,  turquoise,  dark 


358 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


purple  lazuli,  amethyst,  and  a  kind  of  glaze  or  vitreous 
paste.  One  (fig.  326)  is  made  of  alternate  plaques  of 
gold  and  torquoise,  the  design  being  a  house  door 
surmounted    by    a    hawk,    the    symbolic    figure    that 


Fig.  328. 


Bracelets,  First  D^^nasty, 


Fig.  329. 


throughout  historic  times  encloses  the  "  Horus  name" 
of  the  Pharaohs.  The  turquoise  plaques  show  signs  of 
re-threading,  and  the  style  of  the  carving  indicates 
that  they  are  somewhat  earlier  than  the  rest  of  the 
work.  Two  bracelets  (figs.  327,  328)  are  formed  of 
beads  of  various   shapes   finely   cut  and   elaborately 


JEWELLERY.  359 

threaded.     The  fourth  (fig.  329)  has  a  gold  flower  of 
very  beautiful  workmanship. 

The  jewellery  of  the  Old  Kingdom  is  still  very 
rare.  There  are  necklaces  formed  of  gold  links 
copied  from  a  shell  the  cypycea  ;  a  minute  gold  lion, 
and  a  fine  wasp  used  as  pendants,  and  some  repousse 
figures  of  animals  in  thin  gold-leaf.* 


Fig.  330. — Gold  cloisonne  pectoral,  bearing  cartouche  of 
Senusert  III.     Fro  n  Dah.shiir. 

The  treasure  of  Dahshur  consists  of  a  mass  of 
pectorals,  rings,  bracelets,  necklaces,  chains,  pendants, 
and  diadems  that  belonged  to  the  wives  of  three  of 
the  Pharaohs  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty.  The  pectorals 
of  gold  cloisonne  work  inlaid  with  vitreous  paste 
or  precious  stones,  which  bear  the  cartouches  of  Senu- 
sert II.,  Senusert   III.  (fig.  330),  and  Amenemhat  III., 

*  G,  Maspero,  Gnhie  to  the  Cairo  Mnsenni,  1910,  p.  383. 


36o 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


exhibit  marvellous  precision  of  taste,  lightness  of 
touch,  and  dexterity  of  fine  workmanship.  There 
are  two  crowns.  One  is  merely  a  delicate  frame- 
work of  gold  threads  united  at  six  regular  intervals 
by  flowers  with  a  carnelian  centre  and  blue  petals 
and  sprinkled  with  tiny  flowers  also  in  red  and  blue. 
It  could  never  have  been  worn  ;  the  weight  of  the 
flowers  would  have  been  too  much  for  the  delicate 
framework,  and  it  must  have  been 
made  expressly  to  be  placed  in  a 
,i  tomb.  The  second  diadem  has  an 
alternative  pattern  of  rosettes  and 
lyres  formed  of  gold,  carnelian,  lapis 
lazuli,  red  jasper,  and  felspar. 

The  ornaments  of  Queen  xAah- 
hotep  are  far  more  substantial,  and 
were  made  for  use  by  the  living. 
Aahhotep  was  the  wife  of  Karnes, 
a  king  of  the  Seventeenth  Dynasty, 
and  she  was  probably  the  mother 
Mirror  of  of  Aahmes  I.,  first  king  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty.  Her  mummy 
had  been  stolen  by  one  of  the  robber  bands  that 
infested  the  Theban  necropolis  towards  the  close  of 
the  Twentieth  Dynasty.  They  buried  the  royal 
corpse  till  they  had  an  opportunity  of  despoiling  it 
unobserved.  They  were  probably  seized  and  executed 
before  they  were  able  to  carry  out  their  project.  The 
secret  of  their  hiding-place  remained  undiscovered 
until  some  Arab  diggers  hit  on  the  spot  in  1859. 
The  equipment  provided  for  this  queen  consisted 
almost,   entirely    of    women's    gear,    jewellery,    and 


Fig.  331 
Queen  Aahhotep 


FUNERARY    PARURE   OF   QUEEN    AAHHOTEP.     361 

weapons  ;  there  was  a  fan  handle  laminated  with 
gold  and  a  mirror  of  bronze-gilt  with  an  ebony  handle 
ending  in  a  gold  lotus  flower  (fig.  331). 

The  bracelets  are  of  various  types.  Some  were 
intended  for  anklets  or  to  be  placed  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  arm.  These  are  plain  gold  circles  either  solid 
or  hollow,  edged  with  a  species  of  filigree  made  of 
plaited  gold  wire.  Others  were  intended  for  the 
wrist,  and  they  are  made  of  beads  in  gold,  lapis  lazuli, 


fAUchfi^  f**^' 


Fig.  332. — Bracelet  of  Queen  Aahhotep,  bearing  cartouche 
of  Aahmes  I. 

carnclian,  or  in  green  felspar,  threaded  on  strips  of 
gold  and  arranged  in  squares,  each  divided  diagonally 
in  halves  of  different  colours.  Two  gold  plates  on 
which  the  cartouche  of  Aahmes  I.  are  lightly  engraved 
with  the  point  form  the  fastening,  and  are  connected 
by  means  of  a  gold  pin.  A  very  beautiful  hinged 
bracelet  belonging  to  the  same  king  (fig.  332)  suggests 
to  some  extent  the  methods  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cloisoiDic  enamels.  Aahmes  is  kneeling 
before  the  god  Geb,  and  his  acolytes  the  genii  of 
Sopu  and    Khonu.     The  figures  and  hieroglyphs  are 


362 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


delicately  worked  with  the  burin  on  a  gold  plaque. 
The  background  is  filled  in  with  blue  paste  and  lapis 
lazuli  artistically  carved.  A  bracelet  of  more  compli- 
cated design,  but  of  less  fine 
workmanship,  was  placed 
on  the  wrist  of  the  Queen 
(fig-  333).  It  is  of  solid 
gold  and  consists  of  three 
parallel  bands  set  with 
turquoises.  In  front  is  a 
vulture  with  outspread 
wings  ;    the    feathers,    ren- 


dered    in    green     enamels. 


Fig.  333. — Bracelet  of  Queen 
Aahhotep. 


lapis    lazuli,  and  carnelian 
are      inserted     in     gold 

cloisons.     The  hair  of  the  Queen  was  drawn  through 

a  massive  gold  crown,  scarcely  larger  than  a  bracelet. 

On  the  oblong  plaque  fixed  to  the  circlet  is  the  name 

of  Aahmes  inlaid  in  blue 

paste, while  a  small  sphinx 

at    each    end,    appear    to 

keep  watch  and  ward  over 

him  (fig.  334).      A  thick 

flexible    gold    chain    was 

twisted   round    the    neck, 

finished   at   each   end   by 

the  head  of  a  goose  which 

served  to  fasten  the  chain. 

Attached  as  a  pendant  to  this    chain   was  a   scarab 

with   feet   and  body  of  solid  gold,  and    thorax   and 

wing-cases  of  blue  vitreous  paste  striped  with  gold. 
The  decorations  laid  on  the  breast  of  the  mummy 


Fig. 


534. — Diadem  of  Queen 
Aahhotep. 


JEWELLERY. 


363 


were    completed    by    a    large    necklace   of   the    kind 
known  as  the  AsekJi  (fig.    335).     The   fastening  was 


Fig.  335. — Gold  usckh  of  Queen  Aahhotep. 

formed  of  two  falcons'  heads  in  gold,  the  details  worked 
out  in  blue  enamel.  The  rows  of  the  necklace  are 
composed  of  scrolls,  of  four-petalled  flowers,  of  ante- 


Fig.  336. — Pectoral  of  Queen  Aahhotep,  bearing  cartouche 
of  Aahmes  I. 


lopes  pursued  by  tigers,  of  crouching  jackals,  winged 
uraei,  falcons  and  vultures.  All  of  these  are  in  gold 
repousse   work,   and   were   attached    to   the    winding- 


3^4 


THE    INDUSTRIAL    ARTS. 


sheet  by  a  ring  fixed  to  the  back  of  each 
object.  Below  this,  one  of  the  square 
plaques  to  which  the  name  of  pectoral  is 
given  (fig.  336)  was  hung  on  the  breast. 
In  general  appearance  this  resembles  a 
naos.  Aahmes  is  standing  between  Amon 
and  Ra,  who  are  pouring  over  his  head  and 
body  the  water  intended  for  his  purification. 
The  figures  are  outlined  in  gold  cloisons, 
once  filled  in  with  small  stones  and  enamels, 
many  of  which  have  fallen  out.  The  piece 
is  somewhat  heavy,  and  it  is  not  easy  to 
understand  the  use  to  which  it  v/as  put. 
In  order  to  do  so  we  must  recall  the  clothing 
worn  by  Eg\-ptian  women,  a  sort  of  tight 
dress  of  semi-transparent  material  that 
ended  just  above  the  waist,  leaving  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  bare  except  for 
the  narrow  pair  of  braces  that  held  up  the 
garment.  This  bare  space  was  covered 
with  jewellery  by  the  rich.  The  necklace 
half  concealed  the  shoulders  and  neck,  the 
pectoral  filled  in  the  space  between  the 
breasts,  and  the  breasts  themselves  were 
frequently  covered  with  two  gold  caps 
either  painted  or  enamelled. 

In  addition  to  the  jewellery,  weapons 
and  amulets  were  heaped  up  in  confusion. 
There  were  large  massive  gold  flies  sus- 
pended on  a  fine  gold  chain,  nine  small 
axes,  three  in  gold  and  six  in  silver,  the 
head  of  a  lion  in  gold  of  minutely  detailed  work,  a 


Fig.    337-— 

Poniard 

of  Queen 

Aahhotep, 

bearing 

cartouche  of 

Aahmes  I. 


FUNERARY  WEAPONS  OF  QUEEN  AAHHOTEP.  365 


sceptre   in   black   wood  decorated   with   gold  spirals, 

two  anklets,  and  two  poniards.    One  of  these  (fig.  337) 

has  a  gold  sheath  ;  the  wooden  handle  is  decorated 

with  triangles   of  carnelian,  lapis  lazuli,  felspar,  and 

gold;  the  knob  is  formed  of  four  female  heads  in  gold 

repotisse  work  ;  a  bull's  head  in  gold 

conceals   the  juncture  of  the   handle 

and    the    blade.      The   edges    of    the 

blade  are  of   solid   gold,  the   central 

part  of  black   bronze  damascened  in 

gold.     On  the  upper  face,  below  the 

prenomen  of  Aahmes,  there  is  a  lion 

chasing   a    bull    opposite    four   huge 

grasshoppers,     placed      one     behind 

another  ;    on  the  lower  face  we  find 

the    name   of   Aahmes,   followed    by 

fifteen    flowers    opening   one    out   of 

another   and   diminishing   in   size    to 

the  point.    Several  daggers  discovered 

by  Dr.   Schliemann  at    Mycenai    are 

similarly     decorated.       The     second 

dagger  found  with  the  Queen  (fig.  338) 

is  of  a  pattern  not  infrequently  found 

at   the    present    day    in    Persia    and 

India.      The   blade    is    of   yellowish 

bronze,   very   heavy,    with    a   handle 

formed    of  a   lenticular    silver   disc. 

the  handle  was  held  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand,  and 

the  blade  was  passed   between    the    index    and    the 

middle  fingers.     It  may  be  asked  what  use  a  woman, 

and  moreover  a  dead  woman,  could  possibly  have  for 

so  many  weapons.     The  other  world  swarmed   with 


Fig.  338-- 

Poniard  of 
Queen  Aahhotep. 

When    in    use 


366 


THE    INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 


enemies  against  whom  it  was    necessary  to  struggle 

unceasingly  —  there 
were  Typhonian  genii, 
serpents,  gigantic 
scorpions,  tortoises, 
monsters  of  every  de- 
scription. The  daggers  deposited  in  the 
coffin  with  the  mummy  helped  the  soul 
to  protect  itself,  and  as  they  could  only 
be  used  in  a  fight  at  close  quarters,  pro- 
jectiles were  added,  bows  and  arrows, 
boomerangs  of  hard  wood,  and  a  war  axe. 
The  handle  of  the  axe  is  in  cedar-wood 
covered  with  gold-leaf  (fig.  339).  The 
name  and  titles  of  Aahmes  are  inscribed 
on  it  in  characters  of  lapis  lazuli,  carne- 
lian,  turquoise,  and  green  felspar.  The 
head  is  inserted  in  a  notch  in  the  wood 
and  held  in  place  by  strips  of  gold  bound 
round  it.  It  is  in  black  bronze  and  has 
been  gilded  ;  one  of  the  two  faces  has 
lotus  flowers  in  precious  stones  on  gold  ; 
on  the  other  face  is  Aahmes  striking  a 
prostrate  barbarian,  whom  he  is  grasping 
by  the  hair ;  and  below  is  Mont,  the 
Theban  war-god,  in  the  likeness  of  an 
eagle-headed  griffin.  Two  boats  in  gold 
and  silver  represent  the  barge  on  which 
the  mummy  crossed  the  river  to  reach 
its  last  resting-place,  and  in  which  the 
Queen  would  also  navigate  the  waters  of  the  West 
in   the  company  of  the  gods.     The   silver   boat  was 


Fig.  339  — 

Battle-axe  of 

Queen 

Aahhotep. 


DECADENCE   OF  JEWELLERS'    ART. 


367 


mounted  on  a  wooden  chariot  with  four  bronze 
wheels,  but  as  it  was  in  bad  condition  it  was  taken 
off  its  carriage  and  replaced  by  the  boat  made  of 
gold  (fig.  340).  The  hull  is  long  and  narrow,  the 
prow  and  stern  end  in  tufts  of  papyrus  gracefully 
curved  inwards.  On  the  poop  and  at  the  prow  are 
two  raised  platforms  surrounded  by  a  solid  balustrade, 
to  take  the  place  of  a  quarter-deck.  The  pilot  is 
standing  on  one  of  them,  and  the  steersman  in  front 
of  the  other  is  working  the  wide  oar  that  serves  as  a 


Fig.  340. — Funerary  bark  of  Queen  Aahhotep.     The  boat  is  gold, 
the  men  are  silver. 


rudder.  Twelve  oarsmen  in  solid  silver  are  rowing 
under  the  orders  of  these  two  officers.  In  the  centre 
Karnes  is  seated  holding  the  sceptre  and  axe. 

All  this  provision  was  made  for  one  single  mummy, 
and  I  have  only  enumerated  the  most  remarkable 
objects.  The  technique  is  irreproachable,  and  the 
good  taste  of  the  craftsman  is  as  assured  as  the 
dexterity  of  his  work.  This  high  degree  of  perfection 
was  not  long  maintained.  Fashions  changed,  and 
jewellery  became  heavier  in  design.  The  ring  of 
Rameses  II.  in  the  Louvre,  with  the  pawing  horse  on 


368  THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

the  bezel  (fig.  341),  the  bracelet  of  Prince  Psar 
(fig.  342),  with  griffins  and  lotus  in  cloisonne  enamel, 
are  less  happy  in  design  than  the  bracelet  of  Aahmes. 
The  jewellers  who  made  them  were  no  less  expert 
than  the  craftsmen  of  Queen  Aahhotep,  but  their 
taste  and  inventive  faculty  were  inferior.  Rameses  II. 
must  either  refrain  from  wearing  his  ring  or  be 
prepared  to  see  his  little  horses  damaged  by  the 
slightest  blow.  This  decadence,  already  observable 
in  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  becomes  more  marked 
as  we  approach  the  Christian  era.  The  ear-studs  of 
Rameses  IX.  in  the  Cairo  ^Museum  are   an  inartistic 


Fig.  341. — Ring  of  Rameses  II. 

medley  of  filigree  work,  small  chains,  and  pendent 
uraei,  such  as  no  ear  could  have  worn  without  the 
lobe  being  greatly  enlarged  and  deformed.  They 
were  found  attached  to  the  wig  on  the  head  of  the 
mummy. 

The  bracelets  of  the  high-priest  Pinotem  III., 
found  on  the  arms  of  the  mummy,  are  mere  circles 
of  gold  rounded  and  encrusted  with  coloured  glass 
and  carnelian,  similar  to  those  still  made  by  the 
Sudanese  blacks.  The  settlement  of  Greeks  in 
Egypt  only  very  gradually  modified  the  style  of 
Egyptian  gold  work,  although  eventually  Greek  types 
were    substituted    for    native   art.     The   gold    jewels 


DECADENCE   OF   JEWELLERS'    ART. 


369 


discovered  at  Saqqara  in  coffins  of  the  Persian  period 
arc  purely  indigenous  in  style.  The  jewellery  of  an 
Ethiopian  queen,  purchased  from  Ferlini  by  the 
Berlin  Museum,  comprised,  in  addition  to  objects 
that  might  well  be  attributed  to  the  Pharaonic  period, 
others  of  a  mixed  style  where  Hellenic  influence  is 
easily  recognisable.  The  treasures  discovered  at 
Zagazii^  in  1878,  at  Keneh  in  1881,  and  at  Damanhur 
in  1882  are  completely  alien  to  Egyptian  art  and 
traditions  ;  here  are  hairpins   surmounted  by  a  figure 


Fig.  342. — Bracelet  of  Prince  Psar. 

of  Venus,  waist-buckles,  agraffes  for  the  peplum, 
rings  and  bracelets  set  with  cameos,  and  coffers 
flanked  at  the  four  corners  with  Ionic  columns.  The 
ancient  models  were,  ho.vever,  still  held  in  honour  in 
the  country  districts,  and  the  village  goldsmith 
followed  with  fair  success  the  ancient  traditions,  while 
their  servile  fellow  craftsmen  of  the  cities  copied 
Greek  and  Roman  models. 

In  this  rapid  survey  of  the  industrial  arts  there  are 
only    too    many    omissions.     I    have    been    forced  to 
confine  myself  to   quoting   examples  only  from  well- 
24 


3/0  THE   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS. 

known  collections,  but  there  is  much  to  be  learnt 
from  those  who  have  the  leisure  to  visit  our  provincial 
museums,  and  also  to  examine  the  specimens  that 
have  passed  by  purchase  into  private  hands.  There 
is  an  immense  variety  of  small  objects  which  illus- 
trate the  industrial  arts  of  ancient  Egypt,  and  a 
methodical  study  of  them  has  yet  to  be  done.  It  is 
a  task  that  holds  out  a  promise  of  infinite  pleasure 
and  interest  to  the  student  who  undertakes  it. 


INDEX 


Aahhotep  i8i,  342,  350,  360-7. 

Aahhotep  II.  323. 

Aahmes  I.  299,  301,  322,  342, 

352,  360-7. 
Aahmes  II.  302. 
Aahmesnefertari  323. 
Aalii,  fields  of  198  (see  Elysian 

Fields). 
Abacus  61,  63,  68,  133. 
Abi  309. 
Abu  Gurab  78. 
Abu  Roash  130,  159, 
Abu  Simbel  61,  96,  230,  260, 

262,  263,  355. 
Abusir65,  68,  78,  107,  132,  163. 
Abydos  i,  2,  3,  26,  28,  29,  171, 
230,  255,  292,  309. 

art  of  234,  262. 

fort  of  32,  33. 

royal  tombs  of  3,  26,  282,  357. 
Acacia  229,  248,  310,  318. 
Adze  5S>  338. 
Agate  275,  277. 
Agraffes  369. 
Ahnas  el  Medineh  293. 
Ai  16,  179. 
Akhenaten  14,  16,  20,  179,  257, 

258,  295. 
Alabaster  7,  48,  53,  74,  76,  loi, 

189,  194,  2'43,  250,  281,  282, 

283,  284,  286,  304,  309,  325. 
Alexander,  tomb  of  270. 
Alexander  II.,  colossus  of  269. 
Alexandria  60,  269,  270,  271, 
Altar  73,  80,  100,  125,  282,  305. 
Alumina  293. 
Amasis  336. 
Amber  277. 
Amenemhat  II.  90. 


Amenemhat  III.  90,   168,  254, 

359. 
Amenemhat  IV.  309. 
Amenhotep   I.    181,    182,   256, 

322. 
Amenhotep  II.  61,  256,  302. 
Amenhotep  III.  61,  82,  92,  94, 

121,  172,  206,  253,  257,  300, 

311,  346,  354. 
Ameni  174,  176. 
Ameni  Entef  Amenemhet  125. 
Ameniritis  264. 
Amethyst  276,  277,  280,  358. 
Amon  114,  119,  121,  123,  127, 

260,  279,  280,  301,  342,  350, 

364- 
Amon  Ra  113. 
Amphora  42,  211,  297, 
Amulets  55,  116,  118,  191,  274, 

276,  277,  296,  298,  300,  340, 

349.  364- 
Andro-sphinx  105,  257. 
Angareb,  or  Nubian  bed  317, 

327- 
Angulated  grooving  9,  31,  86, 

148. 
Anhuii  345. 

Animal  figures  201,  239,  257, 
306,  336.  337,  345,  359. 

sacrifice  55,  88,  112, 113,  184. 

skins  as  shields  201. 
Ankh  amulet  321,  323. 
Anklets  361,  365. 
Anna  256. 
Antef  299. 

Antelope  202,  345,  354,  363. 
Antimony  285,  300. 
Antonines,  the  272,  273. 
Antoninus  Pius  118. 


371 


372 


INDEX. 


Anubis  139,  188,  193,  339. 

Anvil  348. 

Ape    196,    225,    354    (see    also 

Cynocephali). 
Apis  bull  172,  296. 
Apopi  (serpent)  188. 
Apries  (Hophra)  302,  346. 
Aquamarine  277. 
Arch  9,  59. 
Archaic    period    44,    130    (see 

Predyxastic    and    Thinite 

Periods). 
Archers  210,  216. 
Architraves  53-  59>  63,  112,  175. 
Argo,  Island  of  254. 
Arrow-heads  276. 
Art,  decadence  of  1S6,  263,  368. 

duality  in  114. 

influence    of    court    on    235, 
263. 

schools   234,   255,    263,   264, 
269,  271,  272. 
Artists'  models  195. 

palettes  195. 
Ashmolean    Museum,     Oxford 

44,  192,  193,  231,  233. 
Ashurbanipal  349. 
Asia  Minor  278,  355. 
Asiatics  109,  305,  341,  353- 
Ass  196,  202. 

Assuan   51,   82,   91,    173,    174, 
252,  271,  293,  298. 

art  school  of  235,  271. 
Assyria  349. 

Astronomical  figures  112,  187. 
Athena  336. 
Athens  343. 
Ati  168. 
Attitudes  in  statuary  239,  240, 

245,  266,  267. 
Atum  123. 

Axe  338,  364,  366,  367. 
Axum  123. 

Ba,  the  soul  128,  280. 

transmigration  of  188. 
Babylonia  282. 
Baityle  121. 
Bakenrenf  189. 


Bark,  sacred  81,  91,  126  (see 
Boat  of  the  Sun). 

Barrage  47. 

Basalt  48,  163,  194,  222,  264, 
266,  282. 

Basket  353, 

work  designs  on  pottery-  289. 

Bas-reliefs  40,  163,  219,  223, 
225,  250,  253,  256,  238,  260, 
261,  264,  267,  271,  273,  347, 
349- 

Bast  193,  343. 

Bath  II,  23. 

Beads  275,  277,  294,  33S,  347, 
358,  361 

Beams  laid  in  brickwork  6,  7. 

Bed  307,  317,  327,  328. 

Bedouin  48,  119. 

Begig  123. 

Beit  el  Wally  98,  230. 

Belief  in  rewards  and  punish- 
ments 178,  179. 

Benben  stone  121. 

Beni  Hasan  66,  96,  173,  174, 
176,  179,  191,  203,  252,  331. 

Berlin  337,  369. 

Bersheh  172,  173,  252. 

Bes  61,  63,  283,  313,  334. 

Biographies  on  tombs  179,  180. 

Birds   with   human  arms  109, 

.305. 
Birket  el  Karun  43. 
Block  houses  38. 
Blow  pipe  339,  347. 
Boat  191,  212,  289,  313,  333, 
366. 

of  the  sun  80,  126,  183,  187. 
Bone  306. 
Book   of   the   Dead    169,    181, 

189,  197,  230,  320. 
Book  of  Knowing  that  which  is 

in  the  Underworld  197. , 
Book  of  Opening  of  the^outh 

189. 
Boomerangs  308,  366. 
Boston  148,  243,  244,  306. 
Bracelet    279,    293,    343.    337, 

358,  359,  361,  362,  368,  369. 
Braces  332,  364. 


INDEX. 


373 


Breccia  48,  264,  281,  286 
Bricks, — 

burnt  4. 

concave  courses  of  34,  104. 

glazed  5,  302  et  seq.,  306, 

made  with  straw  131. 

marked  with  royal  name  4. 

moulds  for  3,  4. 

sizes  of  4,  131. 

unburnt  3,  104,  131,  169. 
Bridge  41,  42. 

British  Museum  256,  305,  329. 
Bronze  122,  221,  223,  244,  245, 
291,    339,    340.    342,    348, 
361,365- 

gilded  361,  366. 
Brush,  artist's    195,   196,    200, 

219,  228,  290. 
Bubastis  2,  60,  105,  299,  343, 

345,  346. 
Bubastites  93,  333. 
Buffaloes  355. 
Builders  of  Great  Pyramid  148, 

248. 
Bull  276,  30S,  365  (see  Apis). 
Burin  362, 
Byzantine  emperors  355. 


Cabinet-making  318,  319,  327 
et  seq. 

Caesars  (Graeco-Roman  period) 
5,  66,  81,  107,  116,  198,  237, 
271,  326,  327,  328,  337. 

Cairo  Museum  5,  123,  125,  199, 
221,  222,  227,  233,  236,  242, 
243,  244,  248,  250,  254,  256, 
258,  261,  264,  265,  269,  289, 
296,  299,  300,  301,  305,  306, 
3^8,  311,  314,  321,  333,  341, 

342,  343,  344,  350,  351,  357, 

368. 
Calaite  275. 
Caligula  273. 
Cameo  369. 
Canaanite  cities  38. 
Canal  8,  41,  44,  51,  212. 
Candace  357. 
Canopic  jars  191,  2S4,  292,  327. 


Canopy  328,  329,  333,  335. 
Capitals    51,  60,  65  et  seq.  (see 

also  Columns). 
Caricature  196. 
Carnelian  275,   278,   280,  294, 

360,  361,  362,  365,  366,  368. 
Carpets  332. 
Cartouches    55,    56,    68,     107, 

280,  296,  297,  305,  314,  334, 

337- 
Castmg  339,  340,  342,  345- 
Cats  197,  345,  346. 
Causeway,  of   temples    73,   76, 

78,  100,  163. 
Cedar-wood  309,  366. 
Ceilings   2,    19,    108,    no,   166, 

187. 
Cella  83. 
Cellars  42,  104. 
Chains  356,  357,  359,  362,  364, 

368. 
Chairs  307,  317,  327,  329,  330, 

'"33 1- 

Chariot  113,  209,  258,  327,  367. 
Chests  317,  318,  327. 
Chisel  221,  222,  242,  338. 
Chlamys  270. 

Christianity  273,  349,  368. 
Chrysoprase  277. 
Cinnabar  228. 
Claudius  273. 
Cloisonne    enamels    359,     361, 

362,  364,  368. 
Cobalt  294. 
Coffers  307,  338,  369. 
Coffins  173,  181,  191,  193,  292, 

293,  319,  321^^  5f?^.,  325,369- 
Coins  347,  352. 
Colossi  96,  120,  121,  237,  254, 

255,  257,  260,  262,  269. 
Colours  employed  in  painting, 
201,  228. 

for  flesh  tints,  229,  230,  236, 
312. 

for  glass  294,  296,  297. 

for  glaze  299,  300,  301. 

for  ivory  307. 
Columns  10,  53,  54,  60,  66,  70, 
71,  107,  109,  163,  294. 


374 


INDEX. 


Columns,  campaniform  or  bell- 
shaped  63,  64,  86. 

Hathor-head  69,  70,  97. 

lotus-bud  66,  86,  92. 

palm-leaf  68,  78. 
Combs  306,  308. 
Composition,   in   art  194,   199, 

205  et  seq.,  256. 
Conception  of  earth  and  sky 
108. 

of  future  life  128,  129,  181. 
Constellations  in,  187. 
Contra  Latopolis  69. 
Conventions  of  drawing  203  et 

seq. 
Copper  42,  163,  223,  276,  294, 
309,    338.    339,    340,    342, 
344,  357- 

gilt  123. 

sulphate  of  228. 
Copperas  294. 

Copts    338  (see   also   Christi- 
anity). 
Coral  277. 
Corbelled  vaulting  59,  103,  161, 

170. 
Cordage  designs  288,  295. 
Corinth,  bronzes  of,  339. 
Corvee  248. 
Counterforts  36. 
Covering  walls  32,  36,  37. 
Cow  102,  256,  266. 
Craters  353,  355- 
Crio-sphinx  106. 
Crocodile  196,  216. 
Crowns  44,  360,  362. 
Cruets  354. 
Crypts  88,  97. 
Crys-elephantine     statuary 

349- 
Crystal  280,  281. 
Cuirass  336. 
Cuneiform  tablets  24. 
Cups,   of  precious  metal    350, 

352,  353,  354- 
Cusae,  art  of  257. 
Cushions  331,  335- 
Cynocephali  122,  188,  191,  357. 
Cypriote  type  of  vase  296. 


Dad  amulet  321. 

Dado  109,  303. 

Dagger  308,  365. 

Dahshur  81,  130,  132,  168,  359. 

Damanhiar  369. 

Dancing  141,  203,  206. 

Daphnae  43,  295. 

Darkness  of  temples  87. 

Decani  III. 

Deceased,  name   and  titles  of 

139,  143,  175,  291,  319. 
Decoration     of     temples     and 
tombs  77,  78,  80,  107,  112 
et  seq.,  137,  166,  177,  187, 
199,213. 

of  the  golden  collar  78. 
Deir  el  Bahari  53,    69,  80,  98 

etseq.,  171,  206,253^256,  296, 

297,.    299.    309,     322,     337, 

350. 
Deir  el  Gebrawi  230. 
Delta,  art  of    234,   263,    264, 

269,  271,  345. 
Denderah  61,  65,  69,  72,  105, 
III,  118,  172,  272. 

art  school  of  234. 
Derr  98. 
Dice  308. 
Diorite  48,  75,   189,   194,  222, 

244,  250,  28T,  282,  286. 
Divans  317,  335. 
Divine    descent    of    Pharaohs 

237,  241. 
Dogs  196,  202,  313. 
Doors,  false  132,  136,  141,  143, 
166. 

on  sides  of  coffins  320, 
Double  or  Ka   128,   129,   136, 

139,  143,  166,  181,  186,  187, 

241. 
Dovetails  56. 

Drah  Abul,  Neggeh  171,  299. 
Drain  of  hammered  copper  163. 
Drawing  186,  194,  202,  204. 
Drill  221,  242,  277. 
Ducks  296,  314,  317,  341. 
Dwarf  241,  250,  251 
Dyke  45. 

stone  47. 


NDEX. 


;75 


Eagle  354,  366. 

Earriirgs  279,  315.  . 

Earstuds  368. 

Earthquake  94,  162,  272, 

Ebony  246,  308,  309,  330,  349, 

561. 
Edfu  64,  65,  72,  105,  III,  118, 
Edinburgh  Museum  328. 
Eggs,  mummied  292. 
Ekhmim    234,   292,    326,    327, 

331.  338. 
El  Hibeh  2,  40. 
El  Kab  2,  28,  29,  33,  34,  63, 

84,  105,  230,  297. 
Electrum  338,  347,  348,  349. 
Elephant  306. 

Elephantine  82,  83,  173,  306, 
Elysian    fields    186,    187,    191, 

198. 
Embalming  128,  143,  191. 
Embroidery  336. 
Emerald  48,  277,  280,  294. 
Enamel    245,    248,    295,    301, 

306,  318,  357,  362  (see  also 

Glaze  and  Cloisonne). 
Eshmiineyn  297. 
Esneh  iii,  168,  273. 
Eternal  house    129,    136,    191, 

240. 
Ethiopia    123,    168,    272,    264, 

354.  357.369. 
Etruria  278. 
Ewers  353,  355. 
Exorcisms  167. 
Eyes,    inlaid    245,    248,    295, 

345- 
mystic  278,  301. 
on  sides  of  coffin  320. 


Falcon  363. 

False  doors  132,  136,  141,  143, 
166. 

necked  vases  291. 
Fan  361. 

Fayum  123,  293,  295,  326,  338. 
Feast  days  136. 
Felspar  277,  278,  280,  360,  361, 

366. 


Feudalism  173,  191,  349. 
Filigree  295,  361,  368. 
Fingers  as  amulets  277, 
Fireplace  13,  23, 
Fish  288,  301,  314,  341,  351 
Flint  working  276. 
Flooring  of  cylindrical  pots  26. 
Flowers  303.  304.  3^4.  3i6,  337, 

353.  359.  360,  363,  365. 
Fly,  amulet  276,  364. 
Fortnight  136,  187. 
Fortress  2,  28  ei  seq. 
Foundation  5,  6,  30,  54,  79. 

animal  sacrificed  for  55,  56. 

deposits  55. 
Fox  314. 
Frit  298,  304. 
Frog  276,  278. 

Funerary  barge  141,  190,  335, 
366. 

ceremonies  177,  187. 

cones  190,  291. 

feast  205,  211. 

furniture  189,  274,  307,  314, 

317.  318- 
offerings  136,  139,  189,  190. 
procession  174,  177. 
ritual  169,  174,  181, 
temples  68,  98,  loi,  257. 
workshop -2  56. 

Gaming  board  141,  308. 
Garden  13,  15,  16,  25. 
Garnet  277,  280. 
Gazelle  141,  178,  190,  202,  203, 
206,  217,  283,  284,  334,  341, 

353- 
Geb  361. 

Gebel  Abu  Fedah  51. 
Gebel  Barkal  61. 
Gebel  Sheikh  Herida  51. 
Gebel  Silsileh  96,  261. 
Gebeleyn  40. 

Genii  112,  183,  344,  361,  366. 
Genius,  the  kneeling  343,  344. 
Gerf  Hossein  98. 
Giraffe  354,  355. 
Girdle    tie,    amulet    278,    280, 

321. 


376 


INDEX. 


Gizeh   53,   60,    102,    131,    165, 
237.  252. 
granite  temple  of  73,  102  (see 
Khafra). 
Glass  293  et  seq.,  368. 

imitation  of  precious  stones, 

294. 
inlay  295. 
Glazed  pottery  190,   193,  275, 
286,  293,  301,  302,  304. 
stone  275,  297. 
tiles  303  et  seq.,  306. 
Glazes  for  inlay  21,  304,  358. 
Goat  202,  352,  355. 
Gold  141,  276,  279,  291,  295, 
312,  338  et  seq.,  346,  347, 
348,  349.  351,  355  et  seq. 
leaf  347,  348,  359,  366. 
Goose  189,  203,  284,  320,  338, 

341.  362. 
Graffiti  73. 

Granarv'  2,  11,  14,  42,  104,  141. 

Granite  53,   79,   98,   loi,    120, 

122,    161,    162,    164,    189, 

194,   222,   227,   264,   272, 

277,  286,  325. 

black  48,  189,  223,  254,  261, 

304- 

red  48,  60,  74,  189,  243,  260, 
264,  304. 
Grasshoppers  363. 
Graves,  predynastic  129. 

of  the  middle  classes  191. 

of  the  poor  191,  192. 
Graeco-Egyptian  art  270,  271. 
Greece  278,  356,  368,  369 
Greek  period  199,  268,  279,  293 

(see  also  Ptolemaic  period). 
Greyhound  202. 
Gurneh  67. 
Gurnet  Murrai  296, 


Hadrian  271. 
Haematite  276,  277,  280. 
Hairpins  306,  308,  313,  369. 
Half -months,  feast  of  136  (see 

Fortnight). 
Hammer  348. 


Harhotep  181, 
Harpocrates  342. 
Hathor  63,  97,  100,  102,  193, 
244,  256,  266. 

head  columns  69,  70,  97. 
Hatshepsut  49,  55,  91,  98,  100, 

122,  127,  182,  348,  350. 
Hawara  168. 
Hawk  241,  292,  301,  313,  344, 

357- 
Headrest  189,  280,  313. 
Heart,  amulet  277,  296. 

scarab  279. 
Hearth  13. 
Hedgehog  285,  301. 
Hekalli  168. 
Heliopolis  2,  33,  39,  121,  122, 

344- 

Hellenic  influence  269,  271, 
368,  369. 

Hemispeos  98  et  seq. 

Hepzefa  174. 

Herihor  182,  323. 

Hermopolis  234. 

Herodotus  45,  105. 

Hesi  236. 

Hierakonpolis  200,  217,  233. 

Hieroglyphs  77,  78,  no,  112, 
116,  123,  136,  186,  196,  208, 
236,  264,  290,  295,  298,  300, 
301,  304,  319,  322,  324,  333, 

334.  337.  351.  361. 
Hippopotamus  216,   265,   280, 

296,  299. 
Hittites  38,  211,  214. 
Holy  of  Holies  S^  (see  Sanx- 

tuary). 
Hophra  (Apries)  302. 
Horbeit  346. 
Horemheb  179,  205,  206,  211, 

230,  260,  261,  262,  263. 
Hori  290. 
Hori  Ra  311. 
Horn  306. 

Horse  178,  209,  353,  367,  368. 
Horus  113,  123,  292,  300,  344, 

345.  348. 
name,  on  plaque  358. 
Servants  of  72. 


INDEX. 


177 


Horus,  statue  of  one  270. 
Hotesu  pattern  328. 
Houses,  facades  of  17,  18. 

foundations  of  5,  6. 

models  of  27. 

plans  of  9,  22  et  seq. 

primitive  3. 

stories  of  6,  7,  9,  11,  16,  18. 
Human  figure  202,   204,   231, 
239,    257,    289,   292,    306, 

307.  337- 

limbs  as  amulets  277. 
Human-handed  birds  109,  305. 
Hiinefer  198. 
Hunting  scenes  201,  217. 
Hydria  353. 
Hyksos  254,  269. 
Hypostyle  halls  85,  88,  90,  92, 

97,   loi,   103,  106,   III,   119, 

187,  263. 

Ibis  292. 
Illahun  168. 
Incantations  167. 
Incense  113,  143. 

burners  308. 
Incised  patterns  in  pottery  289. 
India  365. 
Inlay  21,  295,   304,   318,   343, 

345- 
Iron   108,   221,   222,  223,  276, 

294. 
Irrigation  42,  44,  45. 
Isiemkheb  206. 

canopy  of  333  et  seq. 
Isis    113,   266,   269,   278,   279, 

280,  322,  329,  345,  348. 
Isthmus  of  Suez  293. 
Italy  356. 
luiya   and    Tuiyu,    parents    of 

Tyi  295- 
Ivy  321. 

Jack,  for  lifting  56. 

Jackal  191,  292,  309,  313,  327, 

341- 
Jade,  pink  286. 
Jar  stoppers  43. 


Jasper  280,  294,  360. 
Jewellery   274,    276,    353,    356 
et  seq. 
Egyptian  love  of  274,  356. 
Jugs  340,  352,  355. 


Ka  (double)  128,  129,  136,  139, 
143,    166,    181,    186,    187, 
241. 
chamber  136,  138. 
statues    143,    144,    187,    190, 
241,  243,  310. 
Kadesh  38,  118,  211,  214. 
Kahian  i,  10,  289,  290. 
Kalaat  Addah  96. 
Kalabsheh  62. 
Karnes  342,  360,  367. 
L  Karnak  9,   53,  54,   58,  60,  61, 
62,  65,  90  et  seq.,   105,   no, 
118,  124,  220,  225,  256,  257, 
261,  263. 
Kasr  es  Said  172. 
Kemen,  toilet  box  of  309. 
Keneh  298,  369. 
Khafra  (Khephren)  73,  76,  78, 
107,  162,  237,  243,  284. 
temple  of  73  et  seq.  (see  also 
Granite  Temple   of  Gi- 
zeh). 
Khamha  256. 

Khasekhemui,  statue  of  233. 
Kheops  (see  Khufu). 
Khephren  (see  Khafra). 
Kheti  179. 
Kheti,  the  118,  213  (see  Hit- 

TITES). 

Khnum  173. 

Khniimhotep    174,     176,     179, 

203. 
Khonsii  113,  114,  127,  261. 

temple  of  67,   85,  263. 
Khu  128. 

Khufii  148,  243,  309,  348. 
Khuit  292. 
King  as  mediator  112. 

as  priest  iig  et  seq. 

of  divine   descent    119,  237, 
241. 


378 


INDEX. 


Knives,  bronze  338. 

flint  276. 
Kohl  285,  300,  308,  313. 
Kom  el  Ahmar  2,  33,  244,  342 
Kom  Ombo  i,  9,  35. 
Koptos  26,  273,  338. 
Kosheish  45 
Kummeh  35.. 

Labyrinth  66. 
Lacedemonians  336. 
Lake  Moeris  45,  46. 

of  temple  91. 
Lamps  25,  341. 
Lance-head  decoration  334. 
Lapis  lazuli  228,  276,  277,  280, 

294.  338.  358.  360,  361,  365, 

366. 
Lead  294,  338. 
Leather  327,  332,  334. 

cut  and  painted  332. 
Lenticular  ampulla    291,   297, 

301. 
Leopard  202. 
Libation  283. 

vases  327,  341,  344. 
Libyan  desert  347. 
Limestone  7,  21,  48,  50,  52,  53, 

72,   79,   100,   loi,   120,   131, 

163,  164,  166,  189,  195,  196, 

221,  225,  227,  233,  236,  243, 

250,  258,  261,  265,  282,  284, 

286,  298,  304,  346,  347,  349. 
Linen  327,  336,  337. 
Lintels  33. 
Lion  196,  202,  225,  283,  285, 

308,     327,     330,     342,     345, 

357,  359,  364,  365- 
Lions'  feet  for  furniture    330, 

331,  341- 

Lisht  107,  168,  284. 

Loaves,  feast  of  136. 

Loggia  23. 

Loom  331,  337- 

Loop  of  cord  on  column  69. 

Lotus  9,  65,  109,  133,  206,  285, 
299,  300,  301,  302,  303, 
305.  312,  313,  314,  315, 
319,    334,    350.    351,    353, 


I  361,    366,    368    (see    also 

I  Columns). 

flower  column  amulets  278, 
296,  309. 
i   Louvre    242,    245,    250,    253, 
i  254,   268,    305,    315,    330, 

343,  347,  357.  367- 
Luminous,  the  128,  129. 
Lute  206,  300,  315,  316,  317. 
Luxor  54,  60,  65,  94,  105,  120, 

122,  124,  125,  227,  257,  262, 

298. 
Lyres  360. 


Maat  295,  329. 
Mace  heads  118,  233. 
Macedonian  conquest  325, 
Magic  formulae  139,  280. 

powers    of    sphinx,    obelisk, 
etc.     116,    121,    193,    237 
(see  also  Amulets). 
Malachite  277,  338. 
Manfalut  168. 
Manganese  294. 
Marqueterie  330. 
Masahirti  333. 
Massarah  50. 
Mastaba  27,    130  et  seq.,    134, 

171,  172,  173. 
Mastabat  el  Faraun  167. 
Masts  in  front  of  temples  52, 

86,  120. 
Matting,  coloured  27. 
Medamot  64,  66,  72. 
Medinet  Habu  9,  39  et  seq.,  60, 

61,    65,    66,    104,    119,    182, 

209,  220,  223,  225,  297,  306, 

323,  342,  349,  350. 
j\Iedum  72,  130,  235,  289. 
Meir  230,  257. 
Memnon  120,  257,  272. 
Memphis    i,    39,    45,    53,    60, 
105,    130,    172,    178,    189, 
255,  269,  283,  299. 

art  of  234  et  seq.,  243,  252, 
255,    262,    264,    266,  268, 
269. 
Mendes  346. 


INDEX. 


379 


Menes  52,   72,   168,  299,   306, 

347- 
Menkauhor  250. 
Menkaura    77,    162,    241,    243, 

244,  321. 
Menkhepperra  333. 
Mentu  114. 
Mentuemhat  349. 
Mentuhotep  I.  253. 
Mentuhotep  II.  loi,  171. 
Merawi,  Nubia  314. 
Merenptah  263. 
Merenra  165,  166. 
Merlon  31. 
Meroe  169,  272. 
Mesheikh  84. 
Metals  338. 

Migdol  (Magadilu)  38,  39. 
Min,  feast  of,  136, 
Mines  42,  48. 
Minieh  173. 
Mirror  302,  309,  312,  313,  339, 

340-  341- 
Models  225,  226. 
Mokattam  mountains  161. 
Moeris  45  et  seq. 
Monkey  285,  296,  301. 
Monoliths  60,  257. 
Monotheism  258. 
Mont  366. 

Months,  feast  of  136. 
Mortar  56,  131. 
Mosii  344. 

Mother-of-pearl  277. 
Moulds  190,  290,  340. 
Mourners  190,  239,  241. 
Mulkaf  13,  28. 

Mummy  143,  163,  164,  170, 
174,  187,  190,  191,  198, 
279,  295,  319,  325,  329, 
335.  349,  356,  360,  366, 
367. 

couches  328  ei  seq. 

of  animals  292. 
Musical  instruments   190,    196 

(see  also  Lute). 
Musicians  141 . 
Mut  114. 
Mycenae  365. 


Mycenaean    type     of    pottery 

291, 
Mycerinus      (see     Menkaura) 

162,  321. 
Mystic  eye  amulet  278,  301. 


Naga  272. 

Nagada  172. 

Nai  312. 

Naos    69,    74,    125,    126,    295, 

329,  364. 
Napata  169. 
Necklace   277,   292,   294,   302, 

312,  321,  359,  363,  364. 
Nectenebo  70. 
Nefer-ar-ka-ra  163. 
Neferhotep  179. 
Nefert  236. 
Nefertari  97. 
Nefertum  345,  348. 
Negroes  109,  305,  354. 
Neith  280. 
Nekheb  no. 
Nemhotep  250. 
Nephthys  279,  280,  322,  329, 

345- 
Netemt  295. 
Nesikhonsii  297. 
Ne-user-ra  78,  80,  163,  243. 
New  York  197, 
Niche  in  tombs  129,   132   (see 

also  False  Door). 
Niles  109,  254,  264. 
Nilometer,  table  of  offerings  as, 

283. 
Nitocris  265, 
Nome  no. 

goddess  244. 
Nubia  53,  80,  96,  130,  293,  314. 
Nubian  bed  317,  327. 
Nurri  169. 

Oared  galley  289. 
Obelisk  79,   82,  91,    120,   121, 
122,  123,  347,  348. 
magic  power  of  121. 
Obsidian  276,  277,  280. 
Ochre  201,  228. 


380 


NDEX. 


OEnochoe  296. 

Offerings    for    the    dead    100, 

112,  125,  138,  166,  189,  288, 

291. 
Ombos  34,  43,  105,  III,  272 
On  (Heliopolis)  113. 
Oracles  126,  127. 
Orders  of  architecture  72. 
Orientation,  of  body  129,  165. 

of  mastabas  131. 
Osirian  cycle  186,  324. 
Osiride  figures  61,  77,  97,  123, 

216. 
Osiris  28,  61,  63,  88,  113,  139, 

167,  193,  266,  279,  339,  345. 
Ostraca  43,  197. 
Oval  297  (see  Cartouche). 
Ox  51,  202,  ^05,  283,  284,  352. 
Oxford  44,  231,  233,  250,  314. 
Oxide  of  iron  293. 

of  manganese  293. 


Pabesa  265. 

Pahurnefer  243. 

Painting  194  et  seq.,  228  et  seq., 

on  pavements  20,  21,  22,  108. 

on  walls  12,  21. 
Pakhet  49,  96. 
Palestine  121. 
Palettes  129,  233,  275. 

painters  195,  228. 

scribes  189. 
Palm  192,  301,  354. 

columns  68,  78. 
Palmettos  337. 
Papyri  loi,   184,  191,  195,  198, 

199. 
Papyrus    65,     109,    216,    230, 

249,  313.  341.  353- 
columns  163   (see  Campani- 
FORM  Columns). 
Paris  243  (see  Louvre). 
Pearl  277. 
Pectoral  359,  364. 
Pedishashi  268. 
Pennants  86. 
Pepi  I.  166,  244,  284,  303,  342. 


Pepi  II.  166,  168. 

Peplum  369. 

Perfume  82,  145,  187,  313,  34]. 

Peristyle  97,  98,  123. 

Persia  365. 

Persian  period   127,   199,   269, 

I        369. 

I   Perspective  201,  202,  203,  208, 

':  210,   233,   258. 

Petamenoph  189. 

Petukhanu  343. 
I   Philae  43,    65,  69,  70,  94,  iii, 
:        118,273. 
j    Phoenicia  278,  355. 
j    Phoenician  vase,  type  of  296 

Piankhi  41. 

Pig  18S,  221,  222. 

Pigments  201,  228. 

Pillars  20,  60,  61,  62,  98,  174. 

Pinotem  199. 

Pinotem  II.  333,  334. 

Pinotem  III.  368. 

Pisebkhanu  255. 

Pithom  2,  43. 

Place  d'armes  32,  33. 

Plan  of  tomb  of  Rameses  IV. 
184. 

Planets  11 1. 

Plants    emblematic     of    union 
of  North  and  South  109. 

Point,  the  226,  277,  290,  361. 

Polygonal    columns    78,     loi, 
174. 

Porphyry  48,  276,  277,  282. 

Portcullis  153,  161,  162,  164. 

Portico    14,   25,    28,    133,    134, 
174. 

Portrait  masks  on  coffins  322, 

323- 

panels  on  coffins  326. 
Postern  gate  32,  33. 
Potter's  wheel  287,  288. 
Pottery    129,    132;    189,    275, 
286  et  seq.  ~~~" 

black  incised  289. 

glazed  286,  287. 

painted  293. 
Precious  stones  349,  356,  359, 

366. 


INDEX. 


381 


Predynastic    period    34,     129, 
130,    275,    276,    281,    282, 
288,  289,  297.  338. 
tomb  of  Hierakonpolis  200. 
Priest  113,  136,  139,  166,  187, 
265,  311. 
High  333,  368. 
Primitive    huts    3     (see    Pre- 
dynastic    and     TiiixiTE 
Periods). 
temples  52. 
Pronaos  88. 
Psammetichus  I.  264,  343. 

the  scribe  265,  266. 
Psar,  prince  357,  368. 
Ptah  193,  350. 
Ptahhotep  27,  135,  216. 
Ptahmes  301. 

Ptolemaic   period   66,    69,    81, 
88,  93,  94,  107,  112,  116, 
127,   225,   237,   268,   272, 
338,  343-  348,  350,  351- 
art  of  the  268. 
Punt,  land  of  127. 
Purpose  of  wall  paintings  141. 
Pylons  14,   17,  20,  82,  86,  93, 
103,  104,  107,  112,  120,  122, 
169,  213,  216,  231. 
Pyramid  154  et  seq.,  loi,   170, 
171,  222,  302. 
period  282. 
temples  72,  73,  78. 
texts  187,  189. 
Pyramidion  122,  172,  347. 


Qodshu  (Kadesh)  118. 
Quarries  42,  48,  49,  50. 

turned  into  chapels  49. 
Quarrying,  methods  of  50,  122. 
Quartz  275,  281. 
Quartzite,  yellow  304. 
Quay,  of  valley  temples  73,  74 


Ra  364. 

Ra  Harmakhis  123. 
Raemka  247. 
Rahotep  235. 


Ram  225,  278,  345. 

kneelmg  as  sphinx  105,  257. 
Rameses  I.  93. 
Rameses  II.   93,   94,   97,    103, 

118,  227,  254,  260,  262,  355, 

356,  367.  368. 
Rameses  III.  39,  40,  119,  121, 
220,  221,    223,    254,    260, 
304.  305.    306,    323,   335. 
341,  356. 

tomb  of  185,  186,  187,  210. 
Rameses  IV.  tomb  of  184. 
Rameses  IX.  368. 
Ramesseum    54,    57,    63,    iii, 

182,  262,  297. 
Ramesside  period   5,    30,    182, 

192,  263,  299,  325,  326,  356. 
Ramps  73,  76,  78,  98,  loi. 

for  building  56. 
Ranefer  243,  245. 
Rats  196,  292. 
Red  Sea  48,  347. 
Reed  brush  195,  196,  200,  219, 
290. 

pen  199,  201,  228. 
Registers,  superposed  115,  116, 

215,  217,  230. 
Rekhmara  212,  256. 
Relative  proportions  of  human 

figures  141,  206. 
Repousse  work  351,  352,  ^=,5, 

359,  365- 
Respondants     300,     327     (see 

USHABTIU). 

Reversed  capital  65. 

Rings  193,  279,  294,  300,  340, 

356,  357.  359,  367,  368,  369. 
Ritual  of  embalment  181. 

of  funerals  187 

of  opening  of  the  mouth  181. 
Riveting  339. 
Rock  crystal  277. 
Rock  temples  95  et  seq. 

tombs  169,  173  et  seq.,  189, 
256,  325- 
Roman  period    116,    168,   272, 

349  (see  also  C^sars). 
Roofs  2,  II,  12,  13,  26,  27,  28, 

39,  112,  129. 


382 


INDEX, 


Rosettes   300,    304,    333,    351, 

360. 
Royal    tombs,  Abvdos    3,    26, 

282. 


Sacred  animals  292. 

barks  81,  91,  126. 

beetles  278  (see  Scarab). 

eye  278,  301. 
Sacrificial  animals  80,  112,  113, 

189. 
Sahura  163. 
Sais  33. 

art  of  264,  265,  267,  268  et 
seq. 
Saite    period    296,    299,    325, 

350,351- 
Sakkieh  2 1 . 
San  33. 
Sanctuary  77,  81,   85,   87,  88, 

89,  96,  97,  98,  100,  103,  106, 

120,  125,  127,  176,  177. 
Sandstone  48,  50,  53,  82,  loi, 

120,  194,  227,  257,  282. 
Saqqara  27,  60,  130,  131,  164, 

169,  216,  230,  247,  252,  283, 

292,  302,  345,  347,  369. 
Sarcophagus  161,  163,  165,  181, 

185,  188,  189,  265,  294,  319. 
Sardinia  278. 
Saw  277,  338. 
Scarab  278,  279,  297,  335,  362, 

used  as  seal  279. 
Scented  fat  275. 
Sceptre  302,  365,  367. 
Schist  76,  233,  298. 
Scissors  341. 
Scorpion  357,  366. 
Scribe  265,  268,  290,  311, 

cross-legged   242,    243,    245, 
247,  253,  267. 

kneeling  243,  248,  267. 
Sculptor's  models  224,  225. 

sketch  219,  220. 

trial  piece  223. 

workshop  258. 
Sculpture  107,  163,  186,    194, 

218  et  seq.,  231  et  seq.,  258. 


Seal  cylinders  153,  282. 

rings  356,  357. 

scarabs  282, 
Sealings  of  jars  282. 
Sebakh  i^,  265. 
Sebekemsaf  227,  254. 
Sebekhotep  III.    254. 
Sekenenra  181. 
Sekhemka  243. 
Sekhet28o,  313,  345. 
Semneh  28,  35,  36,  58. 
Seneferu  72,  107,  168. 
Sennetmu  292,  321,  329. 
Senuit   206. 
Senusert  I.  35,  90,  168. 
Senusert  II.  168,  359. 
Senusert  III.  253,  359. 
Serdab  77,  143,  144,  165,  176, 

189,  190,  243. 
Serpent    183,    188,    278,    328, 
354.  366. 

amulet  276. 
Serpentine  194,  221,  222,  264, 

265,  276,  277,  282. 
Set  113. 

Seti   I.    56,    93,   94,    102,    118, 
221,  260,  263,  303. 

tomb  of  185,  186,  187,  220, 
260. 
Sharona  84. 

Sheikh  abd  el  Gurneh  296,  342 
Sheikh  el  Beled  243,  247,  248, 

253,  310. 
Sheikh  Said  172. 
Shell  359. 
Shepseskaf  244. 
Sheshonk    (Shishak)    41,    263, 

303- 
Shrine  loi,  119. 
Shu  345. 
Sickle  teeth  276. 
Silica  293. 
Silsilis^o,  51. 

Silver  276,  279,  309,  318,  338 
et  seq.,  347,  349,  350,  351 

353,  355.  357- 
inlay  for  eyes  345. 
Sinai  80,  119. 
Sistrum  69,  113,  302. 


INDEX. 


3B3 


Situ  283. 

Siut  132,  173,  174,  251,  269. 

Slate  233,  250,  275,  282. 

triads  of  Menkaura  243,  244. 
Slaves  48,  212,  250,  305,  315, 

316. 
Sledge  327,  329. 
Sleeping    bench    21    (see    also 

Bed). 
Sleeping  chamber  13,  21,  25. 
Smelting  347. 
Snakes  167,  292,  313. 
Soda  293. 
Solar  bark  187  (see  Sun). 

disc  312. 
Sothis  136. 
Soul  (Ba)    128,   129,   178,   180, 

181,  183,  188,  280. 
South  Kensington  Museum  302. 
Sow  188. 
Sparrow  hawk    191,   278,   285, 

357- 
Speos  96  et  ieq. 

Artemidos  49,  96. 
Sphinx  74,  100,  104,  105,  121, 
253,  254,  255,  345,  362. 

avenues  of  82,  257. 

magic  powers  of  121,  237. 

the  Great  74,  162,  237. 
Spinning  141. 

Spoon  306,  308,  314  et  seq.,  341. 
Square  as  amulet  280. 
Squaring  lines  219,  224,  225. 
Stables  42,  104. 
Stairs  12,  17,  24,  28,  31,  34,  70, 

81,  85,  86,  102,  173. 
Stars  on  ceilings  78,  no,  187, 

334- 
Statues  76,  77,  120,  121,  124, 

163,  227,  231  et  seq.,  255, 

258,   264,   265,   272,    335, 

346,  348. 
from  favissa  at  Karnak  124, 

256. 
in  false  door  137. 
Ka   statues    143,    144,    187, 

189,  190,  241,  243,  310. 
moving  oracles  126,  127. 
usurpation  of  253. 


Statuettes  258,  301,  310,  339, 

340,  343,  348,  349.  311. 
Steatite  275. 
Steel  222. 

Stela   77,    133,    139,    141,    143, 
177,  179,  198,  282. 

of  Bakhtan  127. 

upright  stones  73,  121. 
Stone  104,  275,  277,  282,  325, 
346. 

blocks  53. 

inlay  304. 

quarrying  of  50. 

transporting  of  51. 

vases    276,    281,    282,    295, 

347- 
Stools  327,  330. 
Store  chambers  76,  82. 

house  43. 
Stories  of  houses  6,  7,  9,  11,  12, 

16,  18. 
Sudan  347,  368. 
Sun,  boats  of  the  80,  126,  183, 
187. 
identity    of    deceased    with 

186. 
journey  of  the  114,  183,  187, 

188. 
temple  of  the  78. 
Sun-dried  brick  131  (see  Crude 

Brick). 
Superposition  in  drawing  208. 
of   registers    115,    116,    215, 
217,  230. 
Sycamore-wood   56,    230,   310, 

319,  325- 
Syene  91  (see  Assuan). 
Syenite  91,  164,  222,  281. 
Syria  121,  278,  347. 

Table  327. 

of   offerings    124,    133,    189, 
258,  266,  282,  283,  284. 
Taharka  60,  93. 
Tahuti,  cups  of  350  et  seq. 
Takushet  343. 

Tanis  2,  53,  121,  225,  254,  262, 
343,  346. 
art  of  254,  255,  262,  264. 


.84 


INDEX. 


Tank  lo,  24,  28. 
Tapestry  332,  337,  338. 
Taskmasters  48. 
Taud  280. 

Taurt  (Thueris)  265. 
Tausert  55,  352,  355. 
Taxes  42. 
Tefnut  345. 

Tell  el  Amarna  i,   14,   16,  22, 
178,  257,  296,  297. 

art  of  257,  258,  260,  264, 

palace  of  20  et  seq.,  303. 
Tell  el  Yahudieh  304. 
Tell  es  Saba  346. 
Temple  7,  72  et  seq. 

as  image  of  the  world  107. 

ceremonies  81,  112,  T13,  119 
et  seq. 

levels  of  87. 

store-houses  43. 

terraced  99,  100. 
Tenons  in  statuary  242. 
Tesserae  304. 
Teti  165,  166. 
Thebaid  271,  306. 
Thebes  i,   105,   106,   173,   189, 
230.    255,    257,    265,    272, 
296,    325,    327,    347>    348- 
349- 

art   of   234,   252,   255,    256, 
258,  260,  262,  264,  266. 

necropolis  of  169,  172,  178, 
192. 

town  walls  of  33,  40. 
Thinis  282. 

Thinite  period   148,   231,   273, 
282,  303,  307. 

graves  of  129. 

jewellery  of  357. 

towns  of  I,  13. 
Thmuis,  vases  of  351. 
Thoth  113,  292,  348. 

feast  of  136. 
Thothmes  I.  90,  182,  256. 
Thothmes  II.  91,  182,  322. 
Thothmes  III.  49,  65,  67,  91, 

102,  no,  182,  256,  297. 
Thothmes  IV.  230,  337. 
Ti  134,  144. 


Tiberius  273. 

Tiger  363. 

Tin  294,  338,  339. 

Toilet-box  309. 

Tomb,  chamber  142,  145,  146, 

161,  162,    165,    170,    171, 
178,  183,  189,  190. 

chapel  136,   174,  175,  178. 

of    Rameses    III.    183,    186, 
187. 

of  Rameses  IV.  184. 

of  Seti  I.  186,  187,  220. 
Tombs  129. 

excavated  169,  172  et  seq. 

of  the  kings  i?>i  et  seq. 
Tortoise  313. 
Torus  38. 
Towns,  plan  of  7. 
Transmigration  188. 
Transport  of  stone  31,  122. 
Trees,  varieties  in  Egypt  310. 
Trenches   for   common    graves 

192. 
Tiiai  308. 
Turah  30,  51. 
Turin  126,  184,  196,  236,  260, 

263,  293,  310,  311. 
Turquoise  273,  277,   337,   338, 

362,  366. 
Tusks,  carved  306. 
Tyi  300,  318,  331. 

Uaga,  feast  of  136. 

Uazit  no. 

Una  179. 

Unas  164,  163,  166,  186,  187. 

Uraei  68,    113,   226,    241,    244, 

328,  363,  368. 
Usekh  necklace  363. 
Ushabtiu    190,    191,    290,    300, 

327- 
Usurpation  of  statues  233. 
Uzat    278     (see    also    Mystic 

Eye). 

Valley   temples    73,    100,    107, 

162,  163,  244. 

of   the   tombs   of   the    kings 
182,  296. 


INDEX. 


3S5 


Varnish  229,  324-5,  340. 
Vases  189,  284,  289,  292,  296, 
300,    340,    341,    344,    347. 

351.  355- 

for  flowers  290,  291,  353. 

stone  276,  281,  347. 
Vaulting  59,  174. 
Venus  271,  369. 
Vessels  with  cabins  201. 
Vignettes  198,  199. 
Vitreous  paste  358,  359,  362. 
Vultures   229,    301,    329,    334, 

336,  350,  362,'  363. 


Wady  es  Sabua  98 

Wady  Genneh  47. 

Wady  Gerraweh  47. 

Wady  Hammamat  48. 

Wall  scenes    112   et  seq.,    141, 

200,  201. 
Walls    56    ei    seq.,     104,    105, 
218. 

covered  with  gold  347. 

covering  32,  36,  37. 

decorated  with  glazed  tiles 
302,  303. 
Wasp  359. 


Water  channel  in  street  7. 

cisterns  48. 

of  youth  and  life  114. 
Waters  of  the   West  366    (see 

Elysian  Fields). 
Wattle  and  daub  2,  3,  52. 
Weapons  in  graves   129,   361, 

364,  365- 
Weaving  141,  332,  336,  337. 
Wells  20,  25. 

Windows  3,  10,  12,  28,  58,  86, 
Wine  42,  43,  206. 
Winged  disc  328. 
Woman's  face,  in  glass  296. 
Wood  125,  194,  195,  248,  250, 
275,    284,   295,    310,    318, 
321,  346,  349,  365. 

carving  263,  310,  311. 

gilded  347. 
Wooden  panel  of  Hesi  236. 


Zagazig  351,  369. 

Zaru  41. 

Zcr  357. 

Zeser  168,  303. 

Zodiac,  signs  of  the  112. 

Zowyet  el  Aryan  159. 


25 


PRlN'tED    BV 
IIAZELL,    WATSON    AND    VINEY,    I,n. 
LONDON   AND   AYLESBURY, 
ENGLAND. 


2  14  2 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFOr 


Lob  ANGELEb 
T.IBRAJ?y 


